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| 55 | <H2><A NAME="SECTION005310000000000000000"></A><A NAME="customization"></A><a id='l2h-172' xml:id='l2h-172'></a> |
| 56 | <BR> |
| 57 | 3.3.1 Basic customization |
| 58 | </H2> |
| 59 | |
| 60 | <P> |
| 61 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 62 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-173' xml:id='l2h-173' class="method">__new__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 63 | <td><var>cls</var><big>[</big><var>, ...</var><big>]</big><var></var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 64 | <dd> |
| 65 | Called to create a new instance of class <var>cls</var>. <tt class="method">__new__()</tt> |
| 66 | is a static method (special-cased so you need not declare it as such) |
| 67 | that takes the class of which an instance was requested as its first |
| 68 | argument. The remaining arguments are those passed to the object |
| 69 | constructor expression (the call to the class). The return value of |
| 70 | <tt class="method">__new__()</tt> should be the new object instance (usually an |
| 71 | instance of <var>cls</var>). |
| 72 | |
| 73 | <P> |
| 74 | Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by invoking |
| 75 | the superclass's <tt class="method">__new__()</tt> method using |
| 76 | "<tt class="samp">super(<var>currentclass</var>, <var>cls</var>).__new__(<var>cls</var>[, ...])</tt>"with appropriate arguments and then modifying the newly-created instance |
| 77 | as necessary before returning it. |
| 78 | |
| 79 | <P> |
| 80 | If <tt class="method">__new__()</tt> returns an instance of <var>cls</var>, then the new |
| 81 | instance's <tt class="method">__init__()</tt> method will be invoked like |
| 82 | "<tt class="samp">__init__(<var>self</var>[, ...])</tt>", where <var>self</var> is the new instance |
| 83 | and the remaining arguments are the same as were passed to |
| 84 | <tt class="method">__new__()</tt>. |
| 85 | |
| 86 | <P> |
| 87 | If <tt class="method">__new__()</tt> does not return an instance of <var>cls</var>, then the |
| 88 | new instance's <tt class="method">__init__()</tt> method will not be invoked. |
| 89 | |
| 90 | <P> |
| 91 | <tt class="method">__new__()</tt> is intended mainly to allow subclasses of |
| 92 | immutable types (like int, str, or tuple) to customize instance |
| 93 | creation. |
| 94 | </dl> |
| 95 | |
| 96 | <P> |
| 97 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 98 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-174' xml:id='l2h-174' class="method">__init__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 99 | <td><var>self</var><big>[</big><var>, ...</var><big>]</big><var></var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 100 | <dd> |
| 101 | Called<a id='l2h-175' xml:id='l2h-175'></a> when the instance is created. The |
| 102 | arguments are those passed to the class constructor expression. If a |
| 103 | base class has an <tt class="method">__init__()</tt> method, the derived class's |
| 104 | <tt class="method">__init__()</tt> method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper |
| 105 | initialization of the base class part of the instance; for example: |
| 106 | "<tt class="samp">BaseClass.__init__(<var>self</var>, [<var>args</var>...])</tt>". As a special |
| 107 | constraint on constructors, no value may be returned; doing so will |
| 108 | cause a <tt class="exception">TypeError</tt> to be raised at runtime. |
| 109 | </dl> |
| 110 | |
| 111 | <P> |
| 112 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 113 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-176' xml:id='l2h-176' class="method">__del__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 114 | <td><var>self</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 115 | <dd> |
| 116 | Called when the instance is about to be destroyed. This is also |
| 117 | called a destructor<a id='l2h-205' xml:id='l2h-205'></a>. If a base class |
| 118 | has a <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> method, the derived class's <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> |
| 119 | method, if any, |
| 120 | must explicitly call it to ensure proper deletion of the base class |
| 121 | part of the instance. Note that it is possible (though not recommended!) |
| 122 | for the <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> |
| 123 | method to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a new |
| 124 | reference to it. It may then be called at a later time when this new |
| 125 | reference is deleted. It is not guaranteed that |
| 126 | <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> methods are called for objects that still exist when |
| 127 | the interpreter exits. |
| 128 | <a id='l2h-177' xml:id='l2h-177'></a> |
| 129 | <P> |
| 130 | <div class="note"><b class="label">Note:</b> |
| 131 | "<tt class="samp">del x</tt>" doesn't directly call |
| 132 | <code>x.__del__()</code> -- the former decrements the reference count for |
| 133 | <code>x</code> by one, and the latter is only called when <code>x</code>'s reference |
| 134 | count reaches zero. Some common situations that may prevent the |
| 135 | reference count of an object from going to zero include: circular |
| 136 | references between objects (e.g., a doubly-linked list or a tree data |
| 137 | structure with parent and child pointers); a reference to the object |
| 138 | on the stack frame of a function that caught an exception (the |
| 139 | traceback stored in <code>sys.exc_traceback</code> keeps the stack frame |
| 140 | alive); or a reference to the object on the stack frame that raised an |
| 141 | unhandled exception in interactive mode (the traceback stored in |
| 142 | <code>sys.last_traceback</code> keeps the stack frame alive). The first |
| 143 | situation can only be remedied by explicitly breaking the cycles; the |
| 144 | latter two situations can be resolved by storing <code>None</code> in |
| 145 | <code>sys.exc_traceback</code> or <code>sys.last_traceback</code>. Circular |
| 146 | references which are garbage are detected when the option cycle |
| 147 | detector is enabled (it's on by default), but can only be cleaned up |
| 148 | if there are no Python-level <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> methods involved. |
| 149 | Refer to the documentation for the <a class="ulink" href="../lib/module-gc.html" |
| 150 | ><tt class="module">gc</tt> |
| 151 | module</a> for more information about how |
| 152 | <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> methods are handled by the cycle detector, |
| 153 | particularly the description of the <code>garbage</code> value. |
| 154 | </div> |
| 155 | |
| 156 | <P> |
| 157 | <div class="warning"><b class="label">Warning:</b> |
| 158 | |
| 159 | Due to the precarious circumstances under which |
| 160 | <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> methods are invoked, exceptions that occur during their |
| 161 | execution are ignored, and a warning is printed to <code>sys.stderr</code> |
| 162 | instead. Also, when <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> is invoked in response to a module |
| 163 | being deleted (e.g., when execution of the program is done), other |
| 164 | globals referenced by the <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> method may already have been |
| 165 | deleted. For this reason, <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> methods should do the |
| 166 | absolute minimum needed to maintain external invariants. Starting with |
| 167 | version 1.5, Python guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single |
| 168 | underscore are deleted from their module before other globals are deleted; |
| 169 | if no other references to such globals exist, this may help in assuring that |
| 170 | imported modules are still available at the time when the |
| 171 | <tt class="method">__del__()</tt> method is called. |
| 172 | </div> |
| 173 | </dl> |
| 174 | |
| 175 | <P> |
| 176 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 177 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-178' xml:id='l2h-178' class="method">__repr__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 178 | <td><var>self</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 179 | <dd> |
| 180 | Called by the <tt class="function">repr()</tt><a id='l2h-179' xml:id='l2h-179'></a> built-in function |
| 181 | and by string conversions (reverse quotes) to compute the ``official'' |
| 182 | string representation of an object. If at all possible, this should |
| 183 | look like a valid Python expression that could be used to recreate an |
| 184 | object with the same value (given an appropriate environment). If |
| 185 | this is not possible, a string of the form "<tt class="samp"><<var>...some useful |
| 186 | description...</var>></tt>" should be returned. The return value must be a |
| 187 | string object. |
| 188 | If a class defines <tt class="method">__repr__()</tt> but not <tt class="method">__str__()</tt>, |
| 189 | then <tt class="method">__repr__()</tt> is also used when an ``informal'' string |
| 190 | representation of instances of that class is required. |
| 191 | |
| 192 | <P> |
| 193 | This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the |
| 194 | representation is information-rich and unambiguous. |
| 195 | <a id='l2h-180' xml:id='l2h-180'></a><a id='l2h-181' xml:id='l2h-181'></a><a id='l2h-182' xml:id='l2h-182'></a></dl> |
| 196 | |
| 197 | <P> |
| 198 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 199 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-183' xml:id='l2h-183' class="method">__str__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 200 | <td><var>self</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 201 | <dd> |
| 202 | Called by the <tt class="function">str()</tt><a id='l2h-184' xml:id='l2h-184'></a> built-in function and |
| 203 | by the <tt class="keyword">print</tt><a id='l2h-185' xml:id='l2h-185'></a> statement to compute the |
| 204 | ``informal'' string representation of an object. This differs from |
| 205 | <tt class="method">__repr__()</tt> in that it does not have to be a valid Python |
| 206 | expression: a more convenient or concise representation may be used |
| 207 | instead. The return value must be a string object. |
| 208 | </dl> |
| 209 | |
| 210 | <P> |
| 211 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 212 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-186' xml:id='l2h-186' class="method">__lt__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 213 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 214 | <dd> |
| 215 | <dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 216 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-187' xml:id='l2h-187' class="method">__le__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 217 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 218 | <dd><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 219 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-188' xml:id='l2h-188' class="method">__eq__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 220 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 221 | <dd><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 222 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-189' xml:id='l2h-189' class="method">__ne__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 223 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 224 | <dd><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 225 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-190' xml:id='l2h-190' class="method">__gt__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 226 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 227 | <dd><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 228 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-191' xml:id='l2h-191' class="method">__ge__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 229 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 230 | <dd> |
| 231 | <span class="versionnote">New in version 2.1.</span> |
| 232 | |
| 233 | These are the so-called ``rich comparison'' methods, and are called |
| 234 | for comparison operators in preference to <tt class="method">__cmp__()</tt> below. |
| 235 | The correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as |
| 236 | follows: |
| 237 | <code><var>x</var><<var>y</var></code> calls <code><var>x</var>.__lt__(<var>y</var>)</code>, |
| 238 | <code><var>x</var><=<var>y</var></code> calls <code><var>x</var>.__le__(<var>y</var>)</code>, |
| 239 | <code><var>x</var>==<var>y</var></code> calls <code><var>x</var>.__eq__(<var>y</var>)</code>, |
| 240 | <code><var>x</var>!=<var>y</var></code> and <code><var>x</var><><var>y</var></code> call |
| 241 | <code><var>x</var>.__ne__(<var>y</var>)</code>, |
| 242 | <code><var>x</var>><var>y</var></code> calls <code><var>x</var>.__gt__(<var>y</var>)</code>, and |
| 243 | <code><var>x</var>>=<var>y</var></code> calls <code><var>x</var>.__ge__(<var>y</var>)</code>. |
| 244 | These methods can return any value, but if the comparison operator is |
| 245 | used in a Boolean context, the return value should be interpretable as |
| 246 | a Boolean value, else a <tt class="exception">TypeError</tt> will be raised. |
| 247 | By convention, <code>False</code> is used for false and <code>True</code> for true. |
| 248 | |
| 249 | <P> |
| 250 | There are no implied relationships among the comparison operators. |
| 251 | The truth of <code><var>x</var>==<var>y</var></code> does not imply that <code><var>x</var>!=<var>y</var></code> |
| 252 | is false. Accordingly, when defining <tt class="method">__eq__()</tt>, one should also |
| 253 | define <tt class="method">__ne__()</tt> so that the operators will behave as expected. |
| 254 | |
| 255 | <P> |
| 256 | There are no reflected (swapped-argument) versions of these methods |
| 257 | (to be used when the left argument does not support the operation but |
| 258 | the right argument does); rather, <tt class="method">__lt__()</tt> and |
| 259 | <tt class="method">__gt__()</tt> are each other's reflection, <tt class="method">__le__()</tt> and |
| 260 | <tt class="method">__ge__()</tt> are each other's reflection, and <tt class="method">__eq__()</tt> |
| 261 | and <tt class="method">__ne__()</tt> are their own reflection. |
| 262 | |
| 263 | <P> |
| 264 | Arguments to rich comparison methods are never coerced. A rich |
| 265 | comparison method may return <code>NotImplemented</code> if it does not |
| 266 | implement the operation for a given pair of arguments. |
| 267 | </dl> |
| 268 | |
| 269 | <P> |
| 270 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 271 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-192' xml:id='l2h-192' class="method">__cmp__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 272 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 273 | <dd> |
| 274 | Called by comparison operations if rich comparison (see above) is not |
| 275 | defined. Should return a negative integer if <code>self < other</code>, |
| 276 | zero if <code>self == other</code>, a positive integer if <code>self > |
| 277 | other</code>. If no <tt class="method">__cmp__()</tt>, <tt class="method">__eq__()</tt> or |
| 278 | <tt class="method">__ne__()</tt> operation is defined, class instances are compared |
| 279 | by object identity (``address''). See also the description of |
| 280 | <tt class="method">__hash__()</tt> for some important notes on creating objects which |
| 281 | support custom comparison operations and are usable as dictionary |
| 282 | keys. |
| 283 | (Note: the restriction that exceptions are not propagated by |
| 284 | <tt class="method">__cmp__()</tt> has been removed since Python 1.5.) |
| 285 | <a id='l2h-193' xml:id='l2h-193'></a></dl> |
| 286 | |
| 287 | <P> |
| 288 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 289 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-194' xml:id='l2h-194' class="method">__rcmp__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 290 | <td><var>self, other</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 291 | <dd> |
| 292 | |
| 293 | <span class="versionnote">Changed in version 2.1: |
| 294 | No longer supported.</span> |
| 295 | |
| 296 | </dl> |
| 297 | |
| 298 | <P> |
| 299 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 300 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-195' xml:id='l2h-195' class="method">__hash__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 301 | <td><var>self</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 302 | <dd> |
| 303 | Called for the key object for dictionary <a id='l2h-196' xml:id='l2h-196'></a>operations, and by the built-in function |
| 304 | <tt class="function">hash()</tt><a id='l2h-197' xml:id='l2h-197'></a>. Should return a 32-bit integer |
| 305 | usable as a hash value |
| 306 | for dictionary operations. The only required property is that objects |
| 307 | which compare equal have the same hash value; it is advised to somehow |
| 308 | mix together (e.g., using exclusive or) the hash values for the |
| 309 | components of the object that also play a part in comparison of |
| 310 | objects. If a class does not define a <tt class="method">__cmp__()</tt> method it should |
| 311 | not define a <tt class="method">__hash__()</tt> operation either; if it defines |
| 312 | <tt class="method">__cmp__()</tt> or <tt class="method">__eq__()</tt> but not <tt class="method">__hash__()</tt>, |
| 313 | its instances will not be usable as dictionary keys. If a class |
| 314 | defines mutable objects and implements a <tt class="method">__cmp__()</tt> or |
| 315 | <tt class="method">__eq__()</tt> method, it should not implement <tt class="method">__hash__()</tt>, |
| 316 | since the dictionary implementation requires that a key's hash value |
| 317 | is immutable (if the object's hash value changes, it will be in the |
| 318 | wrong hash bucket). |
| 319 | <a id='l2h-199' xml:id='l2h-199'></a></dl> |
| 320 | |
| 321 | <P> |
| 322 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 323 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-200' xml:id='l2h-200' class="method">__nonzero__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 324 | <td><var>self</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 325 | <dd> |
| 326 | Called to implement truth value testing, and the built-in operation |
| 327 | <code>bool()</code>; should return <code>False</code> or <code>True</code>, or their |
| 328 | integer equivalents <code>0</code> or <code>1</code>. |
| 329 | When this method is not defined, <tt class="method">__len__()</tt> is |
| 330 | called, if it is defined (see below). If a class defines neither |
| 331 | <tt class="method">__len__()</tt> nor <tt class="method">__nonzero__()</tt>, all its instances are |
| 332 | considered true. |
| 333 | <a id='l2h-202' xml:id='l2h-202'></a></dl> |
| 334 | |
| 335 | <P> |
| 336 | <dl><dt><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr valign="baseline"> |
| 337 | <td><nobr><b><tt id='l2h-203' xml:id='l2h-203' class="method">__unicode__</tt></b>(</nobr></td> |
| 338 | <td><var>self</var>)</td></tr></table></dt> |
| 339 | <dd> |
| 340 | Called to implement <tt class="function">unicode()</tt><a id='l2h-204' xml:id='l2h-204'></a> builtin; |
| 341 | should return a Unicode object. When this method is not defined, string |
| 342 | conversion is attempted, and the result of string conversion is converted |
| 343 | to Unicode using the system default encoding. |
| 344 | </dl> |
| 345 | |
| 346 | <P> |
| 347 | |
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| 382 | <span class="release-info">Release 2.4.2, documentation updated on 28 September 2005.</span> |
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