.nr H1 1
.NH
Details on the shell for terminal users
.NH 2
Shell startup and termination
.PP
When you login, the shell is placed by the system in your
.I home
directory and begins by reading commands from a file
.I \&.cshrc
in this directory.
All shells which you may create during your terminal session will
read from this file.
We will later see what kinds of commands are usefully placed there.
For now we need not have this file and the shell does not complain about
its absence.
.PP
A 
.I login
shell, executed after you login to the system,
will, after it reads commands from
.I \&.cshrc,
read commands from a file
.I \&.login
also in your home directory.
This file contains commands which you wish to do each time you login
to the \s-2UNIX\s0 system.
My
.I \&.login
file looks something like:
.DS
set ignoreeof mail=(/usr/spool/mail/bill)
switch(\`tty\`)
	case /dev/ttyd*:
		setenv TERM 3a
		breaksw
endsw
tset \-e \-Q
echo "${prompt}users" ; users
set time=15
msgs -f
if (-e $mail) then
	echo "${prompt}mail"
	mail
endif
.DE
.PP
This file contains several commands to be executed by \s-2UNIX\s0
each time I login.
The first is a
.I set
command which is interpreted directly by the shell.  It sets the shell
variable
.I ignoreeof
which causes the shell to not log me off if I hit control-d.  Rather,
I use the
.I logout
command to log off of the system.
By setting the
.I mail
variable, I ask the shell to watch for incoming mail to me.  Every 5 minutes
the shell looks for this file and tells me if more mail has arrived there.
.PP
The next series of commands causes the shell to examine the output
of the `tty' command, and if this command returns a teletype path name of
the form `/dev/ttyd*', then I have logged in on a dialup and the shell
sets the terminal type in the environment to
.I adm3a,
since this is the type of terminal I normally dial in on.
If I am not on a dialup, then the system attempts to set the terminal type
from a table of types it has for hardwired ports.
.PP
The
.I tset
command next sets up any special initialization I require on the terminal
I am using.  The
`\-e' option forces
.I tset
to always use a control-h as my erase character (even on a hardcopy terminal),
and the `\-Q' option causes it to be quiet, not printing any messages
(since I am familiar with what it is doing, I don't need to be reminded.)
.PP
Next I set the shell variable `time' to `15' causing the shell to automatically
print out statistics lines for commands which execute for at least 15 seconds
of machine time.  I then run the `msgs' program, which provides me with any
system messages which I haven't seen before; the `\-f' option here prevents
it from telling me if there are no new messages.
Finally, if my mailbox file exists, then I run the `mail' program to
process my mail.
.PP
When the `mail' and `msgs' programs finish, the shell will complete
execution of the
.I \&.login
script and begin reading commands from the terminal, prompting for each with
`% '.
When it receives an end-of-file from the terminal, the shell
will print `logout' and execute commands from the file `.logout'
in your home directory.
After that the shell will die and \s-2UNIX\s0 will log you off the system.
If the system is not going down, you will receive a new login message.
In any case, after the `logout' message the shell is doomed
and will take no further input from the terminal.
.NH 2
Shell variables
.PP
The shell maintains a set of
.I variables.
We saw above the variables
.I history
and
.I time
which had values `20' and `15'.
In fact, each shell variable has as value an array of
zero or more
.I strings.
Shell variables may be assigned values by the set command.  It has
several forms, the most useful of which was given above and is
.DS
set name=value
.DE
.PP
Shell variables may be used to store values which are to
be reintroduced into commands later through a substitution mechanism.
The shell variables most commonly referenced are, however, those which the
shell itself refers to.
By changing the values of these variables one can directly affect the
behavior of the shell.
.PP
One of the most important variables is the variable
.I path.
This variable contains a sequence of directory names where the shell
searches for commands.
The
.I set
command
shows the value of all variables currently defined (we usually say
.I set)
in the shell.
The default value for path will be shown by
.I set
to be
.DS
% set
.ta .75i
argv	()
home	/usr/bill
path	(. /usr/ucb /bin /usr/bin)
prompt	%
shell	/bin/csh
status	0
%
.DE
This notation indicates that the variable path points to the current
directory `.' and then `/bin' and `/usr/bin'.
Commands which you may write might be in `.' (usually one of
your directories).
Other commands, developed at Berkeley, live in `/usr/ucb'
while commands developed at Bell Laboratories live in `/bin' and `/usr/bin'.
.PP
A number of locally developed programs on the system live in the directory
`/usr/local'.
If we wish, as well we might, all shells which we invoke to have
access to these new programs we can place the command
.DS
set path=(. /usr/ucb /bin /usr/bin /usr/local)
.DE
in our file
.I \&.cshrc
in our home directory.
Try doing this and then logging out and back in and do
.DS
set
.DE
again to see that the value assigned to
.I path
has changed.*
.FS
*The current version of
.I csh
does not correctly export the path contained in `path'
to the environment as the standard version 7 variable PATH, thus you should
concoct a string consisting of the words of `path'
and `setenv' it into the variable PATH, i.e.:
.sp
.ti +5
setenv PATH .:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local
.sp
in the example above.
.FE
.PP
One thing you should be aware of is that the shell examines each directory
which you insert into your path and determines which commands are contained
there.  Except for the current directory `.', which the shell treats specially,
this means that if commands are added to a directory in your search path after
you have started the shell, they will not necessarily be found by the shell.
If you wish to use a command which has been added in this way, you should
give the command
.DS
rehash
.DE
to the shell, which will cause it to recompute its internal table of command
locations, so that it will find the newly added command.
.PP
Other useful built in variables are the variable
.I home
which shows your home directory,
the variable
.I ignoreeof
which can be set in your
.I \&.login
file to tell the shell not to exit when it receives an end-of-file from
a terminal (as described above).
The variable `ignoreeof'
is one of several variables which the shell does not care about the
value of, only whether they are
.I set
or
.I unset.
Thus to set this variable you simply do
.DS
set ignoreeof
.DE
and to unset it do
.DS
unset ignoreeof
.DE
These give the variable `ignoreeof' no value, but none is desired or required.
.PP
Finally, some other built-in shell variables of use are the
variables
.I noclobber
and
.I mail.
The metasyntax
.DS
> filename
.DE
which redirects the output of a command
will overwrite and destroy the previous contents of the named file.
In this way you may accidentally overwrite a file which is valuable.
If you would prefer that the shell not overwrite files in this
way you can
.DS
set noclobber
.DE
in your
.I \&.login
file.
Then trying to do
.DS
date > now
.DE
would cause a diagnostic if `now' existed already.
You could type
.DS
date >!  now
.DE
if you really wanted to overwrite the contents of `now'.
The `>!' is a special metasyntax indicating that clobbering the
file is ok.
.B
The space between the `!' and the word `now' is critical here, as `!now'
would be a invocation of the
.I history
mechanism, and have a totally different effect.
.R
.NH 2
The shell's history list
.PP
The shell can maintain a history list into which it places the words
of previous commands.
It is possible to use a metanotation to reintroduce commands or words
from commands in forming new commands.
This mechanism can be used to repeat previous commands or to
correct minor typing mistakes in commands.
.PP
The following figure gives a sample session involving typical usage of the
history mechanism of the shell.
.KF
.DS
% cat bug.c
main()
{
	printf("hello);
}
% cc !$
cc bug.c 
"bug.c", line 3: newline in string or char constant
"bug.c", line 4: syntax error
% ex !$
ex bug.c 
"bug.c" 4 lines, 28 characters
:3s/);/"&
        printf("hello");
:wq
"bug.c" 4 lines, 29 characters
% !c
cc bug.c 
% a.out
hello% !e
ex bug.c 
"bug.c" 4 lines, 29 characters
:3s/lo/lo\e\en
        printf("hello\en");
:wq
"bug.c" 4 lines, 31 characters
% !c -o bug
cc bug.c -o bug
% size a.out bug
a.out: 2784+364+1028 = 4176b = 0x1050b
bug: 2784+364+1028 = 4176b = 0x1050b
% ls \-l !*
ls \-l a.out bug 
-rwxr-xr-x 1 bill       3932 Dec 19 09:41 a.out
-rwxr-xr-x 1 bill       3932 Dec 19 09:42 bug
% bug
hello
% pr bug.c | sps
sps: Command not found.
% ^sps^ssp
pr bug.c | ssp 
Dec 19 09:41 1979  bug.c Page 1

main()
{
	printf("hello\en");
}

% !! | lpr
pr bug.c | ssp | lpr 
% 
.DE
.KE
In this example we have a very simple C program which has a bug (or two)
in it in the file `bug.c', which we `cat' out on our terminal.  We then
try to run the C compiler on it, referring to the file again as `!$',
meaning the last argument to the previous command.  Here the `!' is the
history mechanism invocation character, and the `$' stands for the last
argument, by analogy to `$' in the editor which stands for the end of the line.
The shell echoed the command, as it would have been typed without use of
the history mechanism, and then executed it.
The compilation yielded error diagnostics so we now run the editor on the
file we were trying to compile, fix the bug, and run the C compiler again,
this time referring to this command simply as `!c', which repeats the last
command which started with the letter `c'.  If there were other
commands starting with `c' done recently we could have said `!cc' or even
`!cc:p' which would have printed the last command starting with `cc'
without executing it.
.PP
After this recompilation, we ran the resulting `a.out' file, and then
noting that there still was a bug, ran the editor again.  After fixing
the program we ran the C compiler again, but tacked onto the command
an extra `-o bug' telling the compiler to place the resultant binary in
the file `bug' rather than `a.out'.  In general, the history mechanisms
may be used anywhere in the formation of new commands and other characters
may be placed before and after the substituted commands.
.PP
We then ran the `size' command to see how large the binary program images
we have created were, and then an `ls \-l' command with the same argument
list, denoting the argument list `\!*'.
Finally we ran the program `bug' to see that its output is indeed correct.
.PP
To make a listing of the program we ran the `pr' command on the file `bug.c'.
In order to compress out blank lines in the output of `pr' we ran the
output through the filter `ssp', but misspelled it as sps.  To correct this
we used a shell substitute, placing the old text and new text between `^'
characters.  This is similar to the substitute command in the editor.
Finally, we repeated the same command with `!!', but sent its output to the
line printer.
.PP
There are other mechanisms available for repeating commands.  A
.I history
command will prints out a number of previous commands with numbers by which
they can be referenced.  There is a way to refer to a previous command
by searching for a string which appeared in in, and there are other,
less useful, ways to select arguments to include in a new command.
A complete description of all these mechanisms
is given in the C shell manual pages in the \s-2UNIX\s0 Programmers Manual.
.NH 2
Aliases
.PP
The shell has an
.I alias
mechanism which can be used to make transformations on input commands.
This mechanism can be used to simplify the commands you type,
to supply default arguments to commands,
or to perform transformations on commands and their arguments.
The alias facility is similar to a macro facility.
Some of the features obtained by aliasing can be obtained also
using shell command files, but these take place in another instance
of the shell and cannot directly affect the current shells environment
or involve commands such as
.I chdir
which must be done in the current shell.
.PP
As an example, suppose that there is a new version of the mail program
on the system called `newmail'
you wish to use, rather than the standard mail program which is called
`mail'.
If you place the shell command
.DS
alias mail newmail
.DE
in your
.I \&.cshrc
file, the shell will transform an input line of the form
.DS
mail bill
.DE
into a call on `newmail'.
More generally, suppose we wish the command `ls' to always show
sizes of files, that is to always do `\-s'.
We can do
.DS
alias ls ls \-s
.DE
or even
.DS
alias dir ls \-s
.DE
creating a new command syntax `dir'
which does an `ls \-s'.
If we say
.DS
dir ~bill
.DE
then the shell will translate this to
.DS
ls \-s /mnt/bill
.DE
.PP
Thus the
.I alias
mechanism can be used to provide short names for commands,
to provide default arguments,
and to define new short commands in terms of other commands.
It is also possible to define aliases which contain multiple
commands or pipelines, showing where the arguments to the original
command are to be substituted using the facilities of the
history mechanism.
Thus the definition
.DS
alias cd \'cd \e!* ; ls \'
.DE
would do an
.I ls
command after each change directory
.I cd
command.
We enclosed the entire alias definition in `\'' characters to prevent
most substitutions from occurring and the character `;' from being
recognized as a parser metacharacter.
The `!' here is escaped with a `\e' to prevent it from being interpreted
when the alias command is typed in.
The `\e!*' here substitutes the entire argument list to the pre-aliasing
.I cd
command, without giving an error if there were no arguments.
The `;' separating commands is used here
to indicate that one command is to be done and then the next.
Similarly the definition
.DS
alias whois \'grep \e!\(ua /etc/passwd\'
.DE
defines a command which looks up its first argument in the password file.
.PP
.B Warning:
The shell currently parses the
.I \&.cshrc
file each time it starts up.  If you place a large number of commands
there, shells will tend to start slowly.  A mechanism for saving the shell
environment after reading the \fI\&.cshrc\fR file and quickly restoring it is
under development, but for now you should try to limit the number of
aliases you have to a reasonable number... 10 or 15 is reasonable,
50 or 60 will cause a noticeable delay in starting up shells, and make
the system seem sluggish when you execute commands from within the editor
and other programs.
.NH 2
Detached commands; >> and >& redirection
.PP
There are a few more metanotations useful to the terminal user
which have not been introduced yet.
The metacharacter `&' may be placed after a command, or after a sequence
of commands separated by `;' or `|'.
This causes the shell to not wait for the commands to terminate before
prompting again.
We say that they are
.I detached
or
.I background
processes.  Thus
.DS
% pr ~bill/csh/sh.c \||\| lpr &
5120
5121
%
.DE
Here the shell printed two numbers and came back very quickly rather
than waiting for the
.I pr
and
.I lpr
commands to finish.
These numbers are the process numbers assigned by the system to the
.I pr
and
.I lpr
commands.
.PP
Since havoc would result if a command run in the background were to
read from your terminal at the same time as the shell does, the
default standard input for a command run in the background is
not your terminal, but an empty file called `/dev/null'.
Commands run in the background are also made immune to
\s-2INTERRUPT\s0 and \s-2QUIT\s0 signals which you may subsequently
generate at your terminal, and are not killed if you hang up a phone
connection.
.PP
In addition to the standard output, commands also have a
diagnostic output
which is normally directed to the terminal even when the standard output
is directed to a file or a pipe.
It is occasionally desirable to direct the diagnostic output along with
the standard output.
For instance if you want to redirect the output of a long running command
into a file and wish to have a record of any error diagnostic it produces
you can do
.DS
command >& file
.DE
The `>&' here tells the shell to route both the diagnostic output and the
standard output into `file'.
Similarly you can give the command
.DS
command |\|& lpr
.DE
to route both standard and diagnostic output through the pipe
to the line printer daemon
.I lpr.#
.FS
#A command form
.sp
.ti +5
command >&! file
.sp
exists, and is used when
.I noclobber
is set and
.I file
already exists.
.FE
.PP
Finally, it is possible to use the form
.DS
command >> file
.DE
to place output at the end of an existing file.\(dg
.FS
\(dgIf
.I noclobber
is set, then an error will result if
.I file
does not exist, otherwise the shell will create
.I file
if it doesn't exist.
A form
.sp
.ti +5
command >>! file
.sp
makes it not be an error for file to not exist when
.I noclobber
is set.
.FE
.NH 2
Useful built-in commands
.PP
We now give a few of the useful built-in commands of the shell describing
how they are used.
.PP
The
.I alias
command described above is used to assign new aliases and to show the
existing aliases.
With no arguments it prints the current aliases.
It may also be given an argument such as
.DS
alias ls
.DE
to show the current alias for, e.g., `ls'.
.PP
The
.I cd
and
.I chdir
commands are equivalent, and change the working directory of the shell.
It is useful to make a directory for each project you wish to work on
and to place all files related to that project in that directory.
Thus after you login you can do
.DS
% pwd
/usr/bill
% mkdir newpaper
% chdir newpaper
% pwd
/usr/bill/newpaper
%
.DE
after which you will be in the directory
.I newpaper.
You can place a group of related files there.
You can return to your `home' login directory by doing just
.DS
chdir
.DE
with no arguments.
We used the
.I pwd
print working directory command to show the name of the current
directory here.
The current directory will usually be a subdirectory of your
home directory, and have it (here `/usr/bill') at the start of it.
.PP
The
.I echo
command prints its arguments.
It is often used in shell scripts or as an interactive command
to see what filename expansions will yield.
.PP
The
.I history
command will show the contents of the history list.
The numbers given with the history events can be used to reference
previous events which are difficult to reference using the
contextual mechanisms introduced above.
There is also a shell variable called
.I prompt.
By placing a `!' character in its value the shell will there substitute
the index of the current command in the history list.
You can use this number to refer to this command in a history substitution.
Thus you could
.DS
set prompt=\'\e! % \'
.DE
Note that the `!' character had to be escaped here even within `\'' characters.
.PP
The
.I logout
command can be used to terminate a login shell which has
.I ignoreeof
set.
.PP
The
.I rehash
command causes the shell to recompute a table of where commands are
located.  This is necessary if you add a command to a directory
in the current shells search path and wish the shell to find it,
since otherwise the hashing algorithm may tell the shell that the
command wasn't in that directory when the hash table was computed.
.PP
The
.I repeat
command can be used to repeat a command several times.
Thus to make 5 copies of the file
.I one
in the file
.I five
you could do
.DS
repeat 5 cat one >> five
.DE
.PP
The
.I setenv
command can be used, on version 7 \s-2UNIX\s0 systems,
to set variables in the environment.
Thus
.DS
setenv TERM adm3a
.DE
will set the value of the environment variable \s-2TERM\s0
to
`adm3a'.
A user program
.I printenv
exists which will print out the environment.
It might then show:
.DS
% printenv
HOME=/
SHELL=/bin/csh
PATH=:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local
TERM=3a
%
.DE
.PP
The
.I source
command can be used to force the current shell to read commands from
a file.
Thus
.DS
source .cshrc
.DE
can be used after editing in a change to the
.I \&.cshrc
file which you wish to take effect before the next time you login.
.PP
The
.I time
command can be used to cause a command to be timed no matter how much
\s-2CPU\s0 time it takes.
Thus
.DS
% time cp five five.save
0.0u 0.3s 0:01 26%
% time wc five.save
   1200    6300   37650 five.save
1.2u 0.5s 0:03 55%
%
.DE
indicates that the
.I cp
command used less that 1/10th of a second of user time and only
3/10th of a second of system time in copying the file `five' to
`five.save'.
The command word count
`wc'
on the other hand used 1.2 seconds of user time and 0.5 seconds of system
time in 3 seconds of elapsed time in counting the number of words,
character and lines in `five.save'.
The percentage `55%' indicates that over this period of 3 seconds,
our command `wc' used an average of 55 percent of the available \s-2CPU\s0
cycles of the machine.
This is a very high percentage and indicates that the system is lightly
loaded.
.PP
The
.I unalias
and
.I unset
commands can be used
to remove aliases and variable definitions from the shell.
.PP
The
.I wait
command can be used after starting processes with `&'
to quickly see if they have finished.
If the shell responds immediately with another prompt, they have.
Otherwise you can wait for the shell to prompt at which point they
will have finished, or interrupt the shell by sending a \s-2RUB\s0
or \s-2DELETE\s0 character.
If the shell is interrupted, it will print the names and numbers of the
processes it knows to be unfinished.
Thus:
.DS
% nroff paper \||\| lpr &
2450
2451
% wait
  2451  lpr
  2450  nroff
wait: Interrupted.
%
.DE
.PP
If you run a background process and decide you want to stop it for whatever
reason you must use the
.I kill
program.
You must use the number of the processes you wish to kill.
Thus to stop the
.I nroff
in the above pipeline you would do
.DS
% kill 2450
% wait
2450: nroff: Terminated.
%
.DE
Here the shell printed a diagnostic that we terminated `nroff' only
after we did a
.I wait.
If we want the shell to discover the termination of all processes
it has created we must, in general, use
.I wait.
.PP
If you don't remember the number of a command you have executed, you
call also issue a
.I ps
command, which will print out the numbers and names of the processes
(other than shells) which you are running, showing with each the
amount of processor time it has used so far.
.NH 2
What else?
.PP
This concludes the basic discussion of the shell for terminal users.
There are more features of the shell to be discussed here, and all
features of the shell are discussed in its manual pages.
One useful feature which is discussed later is the
.I foreach
built-in command which can be used to run the same command
sequence with a number of different arguments.
.PP
If you intend to use \s-2UNIX\s0 a lot you you should look through
the rest of this document and the shell manual pages to become familiar
with the other facilities which are available to you.
.bp