.de mD .ta 8n 16n 24n .. .if !\n(xx .so tmac.p .nr H1 1 .if n .ND .NH Operations .NH 2 Naming conventions and operation summary .PP As discussed in section 1.10, the main interpreter loop decodes the first word of the interpreter instruction, using the first byte as an operation code, and places the second byte, the ``subop'', in register 3. The subop may be used to index the display, as a small constant, or to indicate one of several relational operators. In the cases where a constant is needed, but it is not small enough to fit in the byte sub-operator, a zero is placed there and the constant follows in the next word. Zero is easily tested for, as the instruction which places the subop in r3 sets the condition code flags, and this condition code is still available after the transfer to an operation code sequence. A construction like .DS .mD _OPER: \fBbne\fR 1f \fBmov\fR (lc)+,r3 1: ... .DE .IP is all that is needed to effect this packing of data. This technique saves a great deal of space in the Pascal .I obj object code. .PP Table 2.1 gives the codes used in the instruction descriptions to indicate the kind of inline data expected by each instruction. .KF .TS box center; c s l | l ci | aw(3.25i). Table 2.1 \- Inline data type codes _ Code Description = a T{ .fi An address offset is given in the word following the instruction. T} _ l T{ An index into the display, ready as an offset or a guaranteeably small integer, is given in the sub-operation code. T} _ r T{ A relational operator encoded as described in section 2.3 is given in the subop. T} _ s T{ A small integer is placed in the subop, or in the next word if it is zero or too large. T} _ v T{ Variable length inline data. T} _ w T{ A word value in the following word. T} _ " T{ An inline constant string. T} .TE .KE .PP Before giving a list of the machine opcodes, it is useful to note the naming conventions in the interpreter for typed operations. Machine instructions which have numeric operands use a simple and uniform naming convention in which a suffix on the root operation name indicates the type of operands expected. These are given in Table 2.2. Here the expression ``a above b'' means that `a' is on top of the stack with `b' below it. Short integers are 2 byte integers, and long integers are 4 byte integers. .TS box center; c s s c s s l l l c ap-2 a. Table 2.2 \- Operator Suffices .sp Unary operator suffices .sp .1i Suffix Example Argument type 2 NEG2 Short integer 4 SQR4 Long integer 8 ABS8 Real .sp .T& c s s l l l c ap-2 a. Binary operator suffices .sp .1i Suffix Example Argument type 2 ADD2 Two short integers 24 MUL24 Short above long integer 42 REL42 Long above short integer 4 DIV4 Two long integers 28 DVD28 Short integer above real 48 REL48 Long integer above real 82 SUB82 Real above short integer 84 MUL84 Real above long integer .sp .T& c s s l l l c ap-2 a. Other Suffices .sp .1i Suffix Example Argument types T ADDT Sets G RELG Strings .TE .PP We now give the list of machine operations with a reference to the appropriate sections and a short description of each. The character `*' at the end of a name indicates that all operations with the root prefix before the `*' are summarized by the one entry. .br .ne 15 .TS H box center; c s s lw(14) | lw(12) | lw(40) lp-2 | a | l. Table 2.3 \- Machine operations _ Mnemonic Reference Description = .TH .so fig2.1.n .TE .bp .NH 2 Basic control operations .LP .SH ABORT .IP This operator is used to halt execution immediately with an IOT process fault. It is used only for debugging .I px and is never generated by the translator .I pi. .SH HALT .IP Corresponds to the Pascal procedure .I halt ; causes execution to terminate with a post-mortem backtrace as if a run-time error had occurred. .SH BEG w1,w2," .IP Causes the second part of the block mark to be created, and .I w1 bytes of local variable space to be allocated and cleared to zero. Stack overflow is detected here. .I W2 is the first line of the body of this section for error traceback, and he inline string (length 8) the character representation of its name. .SH NODUMP w .IP Equivalent to .SM BEG , and used to begin the main program when the ``p'' option is disabled so that the post-mortem backtrace will be inhibited. .SH END .IP Complementary to the operators .SM CALL and .SM BEG , exits the current block, calling the procedure .I blkexit to flush buffers for and release any local files. Restores the environment of the caller from the block mark. If this is the end for the main program, all files are .I flushed, the profile data file is written if necessary, and the routine .I psexit which prints the statistics if desired (and does not return) is called. .SH CALL l,a .IP Saves the current line number, return address, and active display entry pointer .I dp in the first part of the block mark, then transfers to the entry point given by the relative address .I a , which is the beginning of a .B procedure or .B function at level .I l. .SH PUSH s .IP Clears .I s bytes on the stack for, e.g., the return value of a .B function just before calling the function. .SH POP s .IP Pop .I s bytes off the stack. Used, e.g., after a .B function or .B procedure returns to remove the arguments from the stack. .SH TRA a .IP Transfer control to relative address .I a as a local .B goto or part of a structured statement. .SH LINO s .IP Set current line number to .I s. For consistency, check that the expression stack is empty as it should be (as this is the start of a statement.) This consistency check will fail only if there is a bug in the interpreter or the interpreter code has somehow been damaged. Increment the statement count and if it exceeds the statement limit, generate a fault. .SH GOTO l,a .IP Transfer conrol to address .I a which is in the block at level .I l of the display. This is a non-local .B goto. Causes each block to be exited as if with .SM END , flushing and freeing files with .I blkexit, until the current display entry is at level .I l. .SH SDUP .IP Duplicate the one word integer on the top of the stack. This is used mostly for constructing sets. See section 2.11. .NH 2 If and relational operators .SH IF a .IP The interpreter conditional transfers all take place using this operator which examines the Boolean value on the top of the stack. If the value is .I true , the subsequent code is executed, otherwise control transfers to the specified address. .SH REL* r .IP These take two arguments on the stack, and the sub-operation code indicates which relational operation is to be performed, coded as follows with `a' above `b' on the stack: .DS .mD .TS lb lb c a. Code Operation _ 0 a = b 2 a <> b 4 a < b 6 a > b 8 a <= b 10 a >= b .TE .DE .IP Each operation does a number of tests to set the condition code appropriately and then does an indexed branch based on the sub-operation code to a test of the condition here specified, pushing a Boolean value on the stack. .IP Consider the statement fragment: .DS .mD \*bif\fR a = b \*bthen\fR .DE .IP If .I a and .I b are integers this generates the following code: .DS .TS lp-2w(8) l. RV4 \fIa\fR RV4 \fIb\fR REL4 \&= IF \fIElse part offset\fR .sp .T& c s. \fI\&... Then part code ...\fR .TE .DE .NH 2 Boolean operators .IP The Boolean operators .SM AND , .SM OR , and .SM NOT manipulate values on the top of the stack. All Boolean values are kept in single bytes in memory, or in single words on the stack. Zero represents a Boolean \fIfalse\fP, and one a Boolean \fItrue\fP. .NH 2 Rvalue, constant, and assignment operators .SH RV* l,a .IP The rvalue operators load values on the stack. They take a block number as a subop and load the appropriate number of bytes from that block at the offset specified in the following word onto the stack. As an example, consider .SM RV4 : .DS .mD _RV4: \fBmov\fR _display(r3),r0 \fBadd\fR (lc)+,r0 \fBsub\fR $4,sp \fBmov\fR sp,r2 \fBmov\fR (r0)+,(r2)+ \fBmov\fR (r0)+,(r2)+ \fBreturn\fR .DE .IP Here the interpreter first generates the source address in r0 by adding the display entry to the offset in the next instruction word. It then reserves a long integer space on the stack (4 bytes) and moves the data from the source onto the stack. The pseudo-operation ``return'' takes the interpreter back to the main interpreter loop. Note that the sub-operation code is already in r3 and multiplied by 2 to be immediately usable as a word index into the display. .SH CON* r .IP The constant operators load a value onto the stack from inline code. Small integer values are condensed and loaded by the .SM CON1 operator, which is given by .DS .mD _CON1: \fBmov\fR r3,-(sp) \fBreturn\fR .DE .IP Here note that little work was required as the required constant had already been placed in register 3. For longer constants, more work is required; the operator .SM CON takes a length specification in the subop and can be used to load strings and other variable length data onto the stack. .SH AS* .IP The assignment operators are similar to arithmetic and relational operators in that they take two operands, both in the stack, but the lengths given for them indicate first the length of the value on the stack and then the length of the target in memory. The target address in memory is under the value to be stored. Thus the statement .DS i := 1 .DE .IP where .I i is a full-length, 4 byte, integer, will generate the code sequence .DS .TS lp-2w(8) l. LV \fIi\fP CON1 1 AS24 .TE .DE .IP Here .SM LV will load the address of .I i, which is actually given as a block number in the subop and an offest in the following word, onto the stack, occupying a single word. .SM CON1 , which is a single word instruction, then loads the constant 1, which is in its subop, onto the stack. Since there are not one byte constants on the stack, this becomes a 2 byte, single word integer. The interpreter then assigns a length 2 integer to a length 4 integer using .SM AS24 \&. The code sequence for .SM AS24 is given by: .DS .mD _AS24: \fBmov\fR (sp)+,r1 \fBsxt\fR r0 \fBmov\fR (sp)+,r2 \fBmov\fR r0,(r2)+ \fBmov\fR r1,(r2) \fBreturn\fR .DE .IP Thus the interpreter gets the single word off the stack, extends it to be a 4 byte integer in two registers, gets the target address off the stack, and finally stores the parts of the value in the target. This is a typical use of the constant and assignment operators. .NH 2 Addressing operations .SH LV l,w .IP The most common operation performed by the interpreter is the ``lvalue'' or ``address of'' operation. It is given by: .DS .mD _LV: \fBmov\fR _display(r3),r0 \fBadd\fR (lc)+,r0 \fBmov\fR r0,-(sp) \fBreturn .DE .IP It calculates an address in the block specified in the subop by adding the associated display entry to the offset which appears in the following word. .SH OFF s .IP The offset operator is used in field names. Thus to get the address of .LS p^.f1 .LE .IP .I pi would generate the sequence .DS .mD .TS lp-2w(8) l. RV \fIp\fP OFF \fIf1\fP .TE .DE .IP where the .SM RV loads the value of .I p, given its block in the subop and offset in the following word, and the interpreter then adds the offset of the field .I f1 in its record to get the correct address. .SM OFF takes its argument in the subop if it is small enough. .SH NIL .IP The example above is incomplete, lacking a check for a .B nil pointer. The code generated would, in fact, be .DS .TS lp-2w(8) l. RV \fIp\fP NIL OFF \fIf1\fP .TE .DE .IP where the .SM NIL operation checks for a .I nil pointer and generates the appropriate runtime error if it is. .SH INX* s,w,w .IP The operators .SM INX2 and .SM INX4 perform subscripting. For example, the statement .DS a[i] := 2.0 .DE .IP with .I i a short integer, such as a subrange ``1..1000'', and .I a an ``array [1..1000] of real'' would generate .DS .TS lp-2w(8) l. LV \fIa\fP RV2 \fIi\fP INX2 8,1,999 CON8 2.0 AS8 .TE .DE .IP Here the .SM LV operation takes the address of .I a and places it on the stack. The value of .I i is then placed on top of this on the stack. We then perform an indexing of the array address by the length 2 index (a length 4 index would use .SM INX4 ) where the individual elements have a size of 8 bytes. The code for .SM INX2 is: .DS .mD _INX2: \fBtst\fR r3 \fBbne\fR 1f \fBmov\fR (lc)+,r3 1: \fBmov\fR (sp)+,r1 \fBsub\fR (lc)+,r1 \fBbmi\fR 1f \fBcmp\fR r1,(lc)+ \fBbgt\fR 1f \fBmul\fR r3,r1 \fBadd\fR r1,(sp) \fBreturn 1: \fBerror\fR ESUBSCR .DE .IP Here the index operation subtracts the constant value 1 from the supplied subscript, this being the low bound of the range of permissible subscripts. If the result is negative, or if the normalized subscript then exceeds 999, which is the maximum permissible subscript if the first is numbered 0, the interpreter generates a subscript error. Otherwise, the interpreter multiplies the offset by 8 and adds it to the address which is already on the stack for .I a , to address ``a[i]''. Multi-dimension subscripts are translated as a sequence of single subscriptings. .SH IND* .IP For indirect references through .B var parameters and pointers, the interpreter has a set of indirection operators which convert a pointer on the stack into a value on the stack from that address. different .SM IND operators are necessary because of the possibility of different length operands. .NH 2 Arithmetic operators .IP The interpreter has a large number of arithmetic operators. All operators produce results long enough to prevent overflow unless the bounds of the base type are exceeded. No overflow checking is done on arithmetic, but divide by zero and mod by zero are detected. .NH 2 Range checking .IP The interpreter has a number of range checking operators. The important distinction among these operators is between values whose legal range begins at 0 and those which do not begin at 0, i.e. with a subrange variable whose values range from 45 to 70. For those which begin at 0, a simpler ``logical'' comparison against the upper bound suffices. For others, both the low and upper bounds must be checked independently, requiring two comparisons. .NH 2 Case operators .IP The interpreter includes three operators for .B case statements which are used depending on the width of the .B case label type. For each width, the structure of the case data is the same, and is represented in the following figure. .sp 1 .KF .so fig2.2.n .KE .sp 1 .IP The .SM CASEOP case statement operators do a sequential search through the case label values. If they find the label value, they take the corresponding entry from the transfer table and cause the interpreter to branch to the indicated statement. If the specified label is not found, an error results. .IP The .SM CASE operators take the number of cases as a subop if possible. Three different operators are needed to handle single byte, word, and double word case transfer table values. For example, the .SM CASEOP1 operator has the following code sequence: .DS .mD _CASEOP1: \fBbne\fR 1f \fBmov\fR (lc)+,r3 1: \fBmov\fR lc,r0 \fBadd\fR r3,r0 \fBadd\fR r3,r0 \fBmov\fR r3,r2 \fBtst\fR (sp)+ 1: \fBcmpb\fR (r0)+,-2(sp) \fBbeq\fR 5f \fBsob\fR r3,1b \fBerror\fR ECASE 5: \fBsub\fR r3,r2 \fBadd\fR r2,r2 \fBadd\fR lc,r2 \fBadd\fR (r2),lc \fBreturn .DE .IP Here the interpreter first computes the address of the beginning of the case label value area by adding twice the number of case label values to the address of the transfer table, since the transfer table entries are full word, 2 byte, address offsets. It then searches through the label values, and generates an ECASE error if the label is not found. If the label is found, we calculate the index of the entry in the transfer table which is desired and then add that offset to the interpreter location counter. .NH 2 Operations supporting pxp .IP For the purpose of execution profiling the following operations are defined. .SH PXPBUF w .IP Causes the interpreter to allocate a count buffer with .I w counters, each of which is a 4 byte integer, and to clear the counters to 0. The count buffer is placed within an image of the .I pmon.out file as described in the .I "PXP Implementation Notes." The contents of this buffer will be written to the file .I pmon.out when the program terminates. .SH COUNT s .IP Increments the counter specified by .I s. .SH TRACNT w,a .IP Used at the entry point to procedures and functions, combining a transfer to the entry point of the block with an incrementing of its entry count. .NH 2 Set operations .IP The set operations set union .SM ADDT, intersection .SM MULT, and the set relationals .SM RELT are straightforward. The following operations are more interesting. .SH CARD s .IP Takes the cardinality of a set of size .I s bytes on top of the stack, leaving a 2 byte integer count. .SM CARD uses a table of 4-bit population counts to count set bits in each 4-bit nibble of each byte in the set. .SH CTTOT s,w,w .IP Constructs a set. This operation requires a non-trivial amount of work, checking bounds and setting individual bits or ranges of bits. This operation sequence is very slow, and motivates the presence of the operator .SM INCT below. The arguments to .SM CTTOT include the number of elements .I s in the constructed set, the lower and upper bounds of the set, the two .I w values, and a pair of values on the stack for each range in the set, single elements in constructed sets being duplicated with .SM SDUP to form degenerate ranges. .SH IN s,w,w .IP The operator .B in for sets. The value .I s specifies the size of the set, the two .I w values the lower and upper bounds of the set. The value on the stack is checked to be in the set on the stack, and a Boolean value of .I true or .I false replaces the operands. .SH INCT .IP The operator .B in on a constructed set without constructing it. The left operand of .B in is on top of the stack followed by the number of pairs in the constructed set, and then the pairs themselves, all as single word integers. Pairs designate runs of values and single values are represented by a degenerate pair with both value equal. A typical situation for this operator to be generated is .LS \fBif\fR ch \fBin\fR ['+', '-', '*', '/'] .LE .IP or .LS \fBif\fR ch \fBin\fR ['a'..'z', '$', '_'] .LE .IP These situations are very common in Pascal, and .SM INCT makes them run much faster in the interpreter, as if they were written as an efficient series of .B if statements. .NH 2 Miscellaneous .IP Other miscellaneous operators which are present in the interpreter are .SM ASRT which causes termination if the Boolean value on the stack is not .I true, and .SM STOI , .SM STOD , .SM ITOD , and .SM ITOS which convert between different length arithmetic operands for use in aligning the arguments in .B procedure and .B function calls, and with some untyped built-ins, such as .SM SIN and .SM COS \&. .IP Finally, if the program is run with the run-time testing disabled, there are special operators for .B for statements and special indexing operators for arrays which have individual element size which is a power of 2. The code can run significantly faster using these operators. .NH 2 Functions and procedures .IP .I Px has a large number of built-in procedures and functions. The mathematical functions are taken from the standard system library. The linear congruential random number generator is described in the .I "Berkeley Pascal User Manual" .IP The procedures .I linelimit and .I dispose are included here but currently ignored. One surprise is that the built-ins .I pack and .I unpack are here and quite complex, functioning as a memory to memory move with a number of semantic checks. They do no ``unpacking'' or ``packing'' in the true sense, however, as the interpreter supports no packed data types.