From 2074ceedc82ce93e1aff1870744525ca6221e934 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Bill Joy <wnj@ucbvax.Berkeley.EDU>
Date: Mon, 12 Feb 1979 05:23:23 -0800
Subject: [PATCH] BSD 3 development Work on file usr/lib/w2006 Work on file
 usr/dict/words Work on file usr/doc/bc Work on file usr/doc/REFS Work on file
 usr/doc/README Work on file usr/doc/awk Work on file usr/doc/cman Work on
 file usr/doc/m4 Work on file usr/doc/implement Work on file usr/doc/lint Work
 on file usr/doc/iosys Work on file usr/doc/security Work on file
 usr/doc/password Work on file usr/doc/make Work on file usr/doc/lex Work on
 file usr/doc/tbl Work on file usr/doc/sed Work on file usr/games/ching

Synthesized-from: 3bsd
---
 usr/dict/words    | 24473 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
 usr/doc/README    |     9 +
 usr/doc/REFS      |   405 +
 usr/doc/awk       |  1401 +++
 usr/doc/bc        |  1059 ++
 usr/doc/cman      |     2 +
 usr/doc/implement |  1231 +++
 usr/doc/iosys     |  1044 ++
 usr/doc/lex       |  2310 +++++
 usr/doc/lint      |  1063 ++
 usr/doc/m4        |   929 ++
 usr/doc/make      |   791 ++
 usr/doc/password  |   558 +
 usr/doc/security  |   351 +
 usr/doc/sed       |  1259 +++
 usr/doc/tbl       |  1889 ++++
 usr/games/ching   |     8 +
 usr/lib/w2006     | 24473 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
 18 files changed, 63255 insertions(+)
 create mode 100644 usr/dict/words
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/README
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/REFS
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/awk
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/bc
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/cman
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/implement
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/iosys
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/lex
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/lint
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/m4
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/make
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/password
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/security
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/sed
 create mode 100644 usr/doc/tbl
 create mode 100755 usr/games/ching
 create mode 100644 usr/lib/w2006

diff --git a/usr/dict/words b/usr/dict/words
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..77bd7e7818
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/dict/words
@@ -0,0 +1,24473 @@
+10th
+1st
+2nd
+3rd
+4th
+5th
+6th
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+8th
+9th
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+a's
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diff --git a/usr/doc/README b/usr/doc/README
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..98a97e4194
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/README
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+This directory contains source for most of the
+documents contained in Volume 2 of The UNIX
+Programmer's Manual, 7th Edition.
+Most use -ms to format; many also use
+refer, tbl and eqn. Precise incantations
+are engraved in ./run.
+
+The citations for those papers that use
+refer are taken from /usr/dict/papers/Rv7man.
diff --git a/usr/doc/REFS b/usr/doc/REFS
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..e5da45212e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/REFS
@@ -0,0 +1,405 @@
+%A L. P. Deutsch
+%A B. W. Lampson
+%T An online editor
+%J Comm. Assoc. Comp. Mach.
+%V 10
+%N 12
+%D December 1967
+%P 793-799, 803
+%K qed
+
+.[
+%r 17
+%K cstr
+%R Comp. Sci. Tech. Rep. No. 17
+%I Bell Laboratories
+%C Murray Hill, New Jersey
+%A B. W. Kernighan
+%A L. L. Cherry
+%T A System for Typesetting Mathematics
+%d May 1974, revised April 1977
+%J Comm. Assoc. Comp. Mach.
+%K acm cacm
+%V 18
+%P 151-157
+%D March 1975
+.]
+
+%T U\s-2NIX\s0 Time-Sharing System: Document Preparation
+%K unix bstj
+%A B. W. Kernighan
+%A M. E. Lesk
+%A J. F. Ossanna
+%J Bell Sys. Tech. J.
+%V 57
+%N 6
+%P 2115-2135
+%D 1978
+
+%A T. A. Dolotta
+%A J. R. Mashey
+%T An Introduction to the Programmer's Workbench
+%J Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on Software Engineering
+%D October 13-15, 1976
+%P 164-168
+
+%T U\s-2NIX\s0 Time-Sharing System: The Programmer's Workbench
+%A T. A. Dolotta
+%A R. C. Haight
+%A J. R. Mashey
+%J Bell Sys. Tech. J.
+%V 57
+%N 6
+%P 2177-2200
+%D 1978
+%K unix bstj
+
+%T U\s-2NIX\s0 Time-Sharing System: U\s-2NIX\s0 on a Microprocessor
+%K unix bstj
+%A H. Lycklama
+%J Bell Sys. Tech. J.
+%V 57
+%N 6
+%P 2087-2101
+%D 1978
+
+%T The C Programming Language
+%A B. W. Kernighan
+%A D. M. Ritchie
+%I Prentice-Hall
+%C Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
+%D 1978
+
+%T Computer Recreations
+%A Aleph-null
+%J Software Practice and Experience
+%V 1
+%N 2
+%D April-June 1971
+%P 201-204
+
+%T U\s-2NIX\s0 Time-Sharing System: The U\s-2NIX\s0 Shell
+%A S. R. Bourne
+%K unix bstj
+%J Bell Sys. Tech. J.
+%V 57
+%N 6
+%P 1971-1990
+%D 1978
+
+%A L. P. Deutsch
+%A B. W. Lampson
+%T \*sSDS\*n 930 time-sharing system preliminary reference manual
+%R Doc. 30.10.10, Project \*sGENIE\*n
+%C Univ. Cal. at Berkeley
+%D April 1965
+
+%A R. J. Feiertag
+%A E. I. Organick
+%T The Multics input-output system
+%J Proc. Third Symposium on Operating Systems Principles
+%D October 18-20, 1971
+%P 35-41
+
+%A D. G. Bobrow
+%A J. D. Burchfiel
+%A D. L. Murphy
+%A R. S. Tomlinson
+%T \*sTENEX\*n, a Paged Time Sharing System for the \*sPDP\*n-10
+%J Comm. Assoc. Comp. Mach.
+%V 15
+%N 3
+%D March 1972
+%K tenex
+%P 135-143
+
+%A R. E. Griswold
+%A D. R. Hanson
+%T An Overview of SL5
+%J SIGPLAN Notices
+%V 12
+%N 4
+%D April 1977
+%P 40-50
+
+%A E. W. Dijkstra
+%T Cooperating Sequential Processes
+%B Programming Languages
+%E F. Genuys
+%I Academic Press
+%C New York
+%D 1968
+%P 43-112
+
+%A J. A. Hawley
+%A W. B. Meyer
+%T M\s-2UNIX\s0, A Multiprocessing Version of U\s-2NIX\s0
+%K munix unix
+%R M.S. Thesis
+%I Naval Postgraduate School
+%C Monterey, Cal.
+%D 1975
+
+%T The U\s-2NIX\s0 Time-Sharing System
+%K unix bstj
+%A D. M. Ritchie
+%A K. Thompson
+%J Bell Sys. Tech. J.
+%V 57
+%N 6
+%P 1905-1929
+%D 1978
+
+%A E. I. Organick
+%T The M\s-2ULTICS\s0 System
+%K multics
+%I M.I.T. Press
+%C Cambridge, Mass.
+%D 1972
+
+%T UNIX for Beginners
+%A B. W. Kernighan
+%D 1978
+
+%T U\s-2NIX\s0 Programmer's Man\&ual
+%A K. Thompson
+%A D. M. Ritchie
+%K unix
+%I Bell Laboratories
+%O Seventh Edition.
+%D 1978
+
+%A K. Thompson
+%T The U\s-2NIX\s0 Command Language
+%B Structured Programming\(emInfotech State of the Art Report
+%I Infotech International Ltd.
+%C Nicholson House, Maidenhead, Berkshire, England
+%D March 1975
+%P 375-384
+%K unix
+%X pwb
+Brief description of shell syntax and semantics, without much
+detail on implementation.
+Much on pipes and convenience of hooking programs together.
+Includes SERMONETTE:
+"Many familiar computing `concepts' are missing from UNIX.
+Files have no records. There are no access methods.
+There are no file types.  These concepts fill a much-needed gap.
+I sincerely hope that when future systems are designed by
+manufacturers the value of some of these ingrained notions is re-examined.
+Like the politician and his `common man', manufacturers have
+their `average user'.
+
+%A J. R. Mashey
+%T PWB/UNIX Shell Tutorial
+%D September 30, 1977
+
+%A D. F. Hartley (Ed.)
+%T The Cambridge Multiple Access System \- Users Reference Manual
+%I University Mathematical Laboratory
+%C Cambridge, England
+%D 1968
+
+%A P. A. Crisman (Ed.)
+%T The Compatible Time-Sharing System
+%I M.I.T. Press
+%K whole ctss book
+%C Cambridge, Mass.
+%D 1965
+
+%T LR Parsing
+%A A. V. Aho
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%J Comp. Surveys
+%V 6
+%N 2
+%P 99-124
+%D June 1974
+
+%T Deterministic Parsing of Ambiguous Grammars
+%A A. V. Aho
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%A J. D. Ullman
+%J Comm. Assoc. Comp. Mach.
+%K acm cacm
+%V 18
+%N 8
+%P 441-452
+%D August 1975
+
+%A A. V. Aho
+%A J. D. Ullman
+%T Principles of Compiler Design
+%I Addison-Wesley
+%C Reading, Mass.
+%D 1977
+
+.[
+%r 65
+%R Comp. Sci. Tech. Rep. No. 65
+%K CSTR
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%T Lint, a C Program Checker
+%D December 1977
+%O updated version TM 78-1273-3
+%D 1978
+.]
+
+%T A Portable Compiler: Theory and Practice
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%J Proc. 5th ACM Symp. on Principles of Programming Languages
+%P 97-104
+%D January 1978
+
+.[
+%r 39
+%K CSTR
+%R Comp. Sci. Tech. Rep. No. 39
+%I Bell Laboratories
+%C Murray Hill, New Jersey
+%A M. E. Lesk
+%T Lex \(em A Lexical Analyzer Generator
+%D October 1975
+.]
+
+.[
+%r 32
+%K CSTR
+%R Comp. Sci. Tech. Rep. No. 32
+%I Bell Laboratories
+%C Murray Hill, New Jersey
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%T Yacc \(em  Yet Another Compiler-Compiler
+%D July 1975
+.]
+
+%T U\s-2NIX\s0 Time-Sharing System: Portability of C Programs and the U\s-2NIX\s0 System
+%K unix bstj
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%A D. M. Ritchie
+%J Bell Sys. Tech. J.
+%V 57
+%N 6
+%P 2021-2048
+%D 1978
+
+%T Typing Documents on UNIX and GCOS:  The -ms Macros for Troff
+%A M. E. Lesk
+%D 1977
+
+%A K. Thompson
+%A D. M. Ritchie
+%T U\s-2NIX\s0 Programmer's Manual
+%K unix
+%I Bell Laboratories
+%O Sixth Edition
+%D May 1975
+
+%T The Network U\s-2NIX\s0 System
+%K unix
+%A G. L. Chesson
+%J Operating Systems Review
+%V 9
+%N 5
+%P 60-66
+%D 1975
+%O Also in \f2Proc. 5th Symp. on Operating Systems Principles.\f1
+
+%T Spider \(em An Experimental Data Communications System
+%Z ctr127
+%A A. G. Fraser
+%J Proc. IEEE Conf. on Communications
+%P 21F
+%O IEEE Cat. No. 74CH0859-9-CSCB.
+%D June 1974
+
+%T A Virtual Channel Network
+%A A. G. Fraser
+%J Datamation
+%P 51-56
+%D February 1975
+
+.[
+%r 41
+%K CSTR
+%R Comp. Sci. Tech. Rep. No. 41
+%I Bell Laboratories
+%C Murray Hill, New Jersey
+%A J. W. Hunt
+%A M. D. McIlroy
+%T An Algorithm for Differential File Comparison
+%D June 1976
+.]
+
+%A F. P. Brooks, Jr.
+%T The Mythical Man-Month
+%I Addison-Wesley
+%C Reading, Mass.
+%D 1975
+%X pwb
+Readable, classic reference on software engineering and
+problems of large projects, from someone with experience in them.
+Required reading for any software engineer, even if conclusions may not
+always be agreed with.
+%br
+"The second is the most dangerous system a man every designs." p.55.
+%br
+"Hence plan to throw one away; you will, anyhow." p.116.
+%br
+"Cosgrove has perceptively pointed out that the programmer delivers
+satisfaction of a user need rather than any tangible product.
+And both the actual need and the user's perception of that need
+will change as programs are built, tested, and used." p.117.
+%br
+"The total cost of maintaining a widely used program is typically 40 percent
+or more of the cost of developing it." p.121.
+%br
+"As shown above, amalgamating prose and program reduces the total
+number of characters to be stored." p.175.
+
+%T A Portable Compiler for the Language C
+%A A. Snyder
+%I Master's Thesis, M.I.T.
+%C Cambridge, Mass.
+%D 1974
+
+%T The C Language Calling Sequence
+%A M. E. Lesk
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%A D. M. Ritchie
+%D 1977
+
+%T Optimal Code Generation for Expression Trees
+%A A. V. Aho
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%D 1975
+%J J. Assoc. Comp. Mach.
+%K acm jacm
+%V 23
+%N 3
+%P 488-501
+%O Also in \f2Proc. ACM Symp. on Theory of Computing,\f1 pp. 207-217, 1975.
+
+%A R. Sethi
+%A J. D. Ullman
+%T The Generation of Optimal Code for Arithmetic Expressions
+%J J. Assoc. Comp. Mach.
+%K acm jacm
+%V 17
+%N 4
+%D October 1970
+%P 715-728
+%O Reprinted as pp. 229-247 in \fICompiler Techniques\fR, ed. B. W. Pollack, Auerbach, Princeton NJ (1972).
+%X pwb
+Optimal approach for straight-line, fixed
+number of regs.
+
+%T Code Generation for Machines with Multiregister
+Operations
+%A A. V. Aho
+%A S. C. Johnson
+%A J. D. Ullman
+%J Proc. 4th ACM Symp. on Principles of Programming Languages
+%P 21-28
+%D January 1977
+
diff --git a/usr/doc/awk b/usr/doc/awk
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..758da7dc76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/awk
@@ -0,0 +1,1401 @@
+.fp 3 G
+....TM "78-1271-12, 78-1273-6" 39199 39199-11
+.ND "September 1, 1978"
+....TR 68
+.RP
+.	\" macros here
+.tr _\(em
+.if t .tr ~\(ap
+.tr |\(or
+.tr *\(**
+.de UC
+\&\\$3\s-1\\$1\\s0\&\\$2
+..
+.de IT
+.if n .ul
+\&\\$3\f2\\$1\fP\|\\$2
+..
+.de UL
+.if n .ul
+\&\\$3\f3\\$1\fP\&\\$2
+..
+.de P1
+.DS I 3n
+.nf
+.if n .ta 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
+.if t .ta .3i .6i .9i 1.2i
+.if t .tr -\-'\(fm*\(**
+.if t .tr _\(ul
+.ft 3
+.lg 0
+.ss 18
+.		\"use first argument as indent if present
+..
+.de P2
+.ps \\n(PS
+.vs \\n(VSp
+.ft R
+.ss 12
+.if n .ls 2
+.tr --''``^^!!
+.if t .tr _\(em
+.fi
+.lg
+.DE
+..
+.hw semi-colon
+.hy 14
+.		\"2=not last lines; 4= no -xx; 8=no xx-
+.		\"special chars in programs
+.de WS
+.sp \\$1
+..
+.	\" end of macros
+.TL
+Awk \(em A Pattern Scanning and Processing Language
+.br
+(Second Edition)
+.AU "MH 2C-522" 4862
+Alfred V. Aho
+.AU "MH 2C-518" 6021
+Brian W. Kernighan
+.AU "MH 2C-514" 7214
+Peter J. Weinberger
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+.IT Awk
+is a programming language whose
+basic operation
+is to search a set of files
+for patterns, and to perform specified actions upon lines or fields of lines which
+contain instances of those patterns.
+.IT Awk
+makes certain data selection and transformation operations easy to express;
+for example, the
+.IT awk
+program
+.sp
+.ce
+.ft 3
+length > 72
+.ft
+.sp
+prints all input lines whose length exceeds 72 characters;
+the program
+.ce
+.sp
+.ft 3
+NF % 2 == 0
+.ft R
+.sp
+prints all lines with an even number of fields;
+and the program
+.ce
+.sp
+.ft 3
+{ $1 = log($1); print }
+.ft R
+.sp
+replaces the first field of each line by its logarithm.
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+patterns may include arbitrary boolean combinations of regular expressions
+and of relational operators on strings, numbers, fields, variables, and array elements.
+Actions may include the same pattern-matching constructions as in patterns,
+as well as
+arithmetic and string expressions and assignments,
+.UL if-else ,
+.UL while ,
+.UL for
+statements,
+and multiple output streams.
+.PP
+This report contains a user's guide, a discussion of the design and implementation of
+.IT awk ,
+and some timing statistics.
+....It supersedes TM-77-1271-5, dated September 8, 1977.
+.AE
+.CS 6 1 7 0 1 4
+.if n .ls 2
+.nr PS 9
+.nr VS 11
+.NH
+Introduction
+.if t .2C
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+is a programming language designed to make
+many common
+information retrieval and text manipulation tasks
+easy to state and to perform.
+.PP
+The basic operation of
+.IT awk
+is to scan a set of input lines in order,
+searching for lines which match any of a set of patterns
+which the user has specified.
+For each pattern, an action can be specified;
+this action will be performed on each line that matches the pattern.
+.PP
+Readers familiar with the
+.UX
+program
+.IT grep\|
+.[
+unix program manual
+.]
+will recognize
+the approach, although in
+.IT awk
+the patterns may be more
+general than in
+.IT grep ,
+and the actions allowed are more involved than merely
+printing the matching line.
+For example, the
+.IT awk
+program
+.P1
+{print $3, $2}
+.P2
+prints the third and second columns of a table
+in that order.
+The program
+.P1
+$2 ~ /A\||B\||C/
+.P2
+prints all input lines with an A, B, or C in the second field.
+The program
+.P1
+$1 != prev	{ print; prev = $1 }
+.P2
+prints all lines in which the first field is different
+from the previous first field.
+.NH 2
+Usage
+.PP
+The command
+.P1
+awk  program  [files]
+.P2
+executes the
+.IT awk
+commands in
+the string
+.UL program
+on the set of named files,
+or on the standard input if there are no files.
+The statements can also be placed in a file
+.UL pfile ,
+and executed by the command
+.P1
+awk  -f pfile  [files]
+.P2
+.NH 2
+Program Structure
+.PP
+An
+.IT awk
+program is a sequence of statements of the form:
+.P1
+.ft I
+	pattern	{ action }
+	pattern	{ action }
+	...
+.ft 3
+.P2
+Each line of input
+is matched against
+each of the patterns in turn.
+For each pattern that matches, the associated action
+is executed.
+When all the patterns have been tested, the next line
+is fetched and the matching starts over.
+.PP
+Either the pattern or the action may be left out,
+but not both.
+If there is no action for a pattern,
+the matching line is simply
+copied to the output.
+(Thus a line which matches several patterns can be printed several times.)
+If there is no pattern for an action,
+then the action is performed for every input line.
+A line which matches no pattern is ignored.
+.PP
+Since patterns and actions are both optional,
+actions must be enclosed in braces
+to distinguish them from patterns.
+.NH 2
+Records and Fields
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+input is divided into
+``records'' terminated by a record separator.
+The default record separator is a newline,
+so by default
+.IT awk
+processes its input a line at a time.
+The number of the current record is available in a variable
+named
+.UL NR .
+.PP
+Each input record
+is considered to be divided into ``fields.''
+Fields are normally separated by
+white space \(em blanks or tabs \(em
+but the input field separator may be changed, as described below.
+Fields are referred to as
+.UL "$1, $2,"
+and so forth,
+where
+.UL $1
+is the first field,
+and
+.UL $0
+is the whole input record itself.
+Fields may be assigned to.
+The number of fields in the current record
+is available in a variable named
+.UL NF .
+.PP
+The variables
+.UL FS
+and
+.UL RS
+refer to the input field and record separators;
+they may be changed at any time to any single character.
+The optional command-line argument
+\f3\-F\fIc\fR
+may also be used to set
+.UL FS
+to the character
+.IT c .
+.PP
+If the record separator is empty,
+an empty input line is taken as the record separator,
+and blanks, tabs and newlines are treated as field separators.
+.PP
+The variable
+.UL FILENAME
+contains the name of the current input file.
+.NH 2
+Printing
+.PP
+An action may have no pattern,
+in which case the action is executed for
+all
+lines.
+The simplest action is to print some or all of a record;
+this is accomplished by the
+.IT awk
+command
+.UL print .
+The
+.IT awk
+program
+.P1
+{ print }
+.P2
+prints each record, thus copying the input to the output intact.
+More useful is to print a field or fields from each record.
+For instance, 
+.P1
+print $2, $1
+.P2
+prints the first two fields in reverse order.
+Items separated by a comma in the print statement will be separated by the current output field separator
+when output.
+Items not separated by commas will be concatenated,
+so
+.P1
+print $1 $2
+.P2
+runs the first and second fields together.
+.PP
+The predefined variables
+.UL NF
+and
+.UL NR
+can be used;
+for example
+.P1
+{ print NR, NF, $0 }
+.P2
+prints each record preceded by the record number and the number of fields.
+.PP
+Output may be diverted to multiple files;
+the program
+.P1
+{ print $1 >"foo1"; print $2 >"foo2" }
+.P2
+writes the first field,
+.UL $1 ,
+on the file
+.UL foo1 ,
+and the second field on file
+.UL foo2 .
+The
+.UL >>
+notation can also be used:
+.P1
+print $1 >>"foo"
+.P2
+appends the output to the file
+.UL foo .
+(In each case,
+the output files are
+created if necessary.)
+The file name can be a variable or a field as well as a constant;
+for example,
+.P1
+print $1 >$2
+.P2
+uses the contents of field 2 as a file name.
+.PP
+Naturally there is a limit on the number of output files;
+currently it is 10.
+.PP
+Similarly, output can be piped into another process
+(on
+.UC UNIX
+only); for instance,
+.P1
+print | "mail bwk"
+.P2
+mails the output to
+.UL bwk .
+.PP
+The variables
+.UL OFS
+and
+.UL ORS
+may be used to change the current
+output field separator and output
+record separator.
+The output record separator is
+appended to the output of the
+.UL print
+statement.
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+also provides the
+.UL printf
+statement for output formatting:
+.P1
+printf format expr, expr, ...
+.P2
+formats the expressions in the list
+according to the specification
+in
+.UL format
+and prints them.
+For example,
+.P1
+printf "%8.2f  %10ld\en", $1, $2
+.P2
+prints 
+.UL $1
+as a floating point number 8 digits wide,
+with two after the decimal point,
+and
+.UL $2
+as a 10-digit long decimal number,
+followed by a newline.
+No output separators are produced automatically;
+you must add them yourself,
+as in this example.
+The version of
+.UL printf
+is identical to that used with C.
+.[
+C programm language prentice hall 1978
+.]
+.NH 1
+Patterns
+.PP
+A pattern in front of an action acts as a selector
+that determines whether the action is to be executed.
+A variety of expressions may be used as patterns:
+regular expressions,
+arithmetic relational expressions,
+string-valued expressions,
+and arbitrary boolean
+combinations of these.
+.NH 2
+BEGIN and END
+.PP
+The special pattern
+.UL BEGIN
+matches the beginning of the input,
+before the first record is read.
+The pattern
+.UL END
+matches the end of the input,
+after the last record has been processed.
+.UL BEGIN
+and
+.UL END
+thus provide a way to gain control before and after processing,
+for initialization and wrapup.
+.PP
+As an example, the field separator
+can be set to a colon by
+.P1
+BEGIN	{ FS = ":" }
+.ft I
+\&... rest of program ...
+.ft 3
+.P2
+Or the input lines may be counted by
+.P1
+END  { print NR }
+.P2
+If
+.UL BEGIN
+is present, it must be the first pattern;
+.UL END
+must be the last if used.
+.NH 2
+Regular Expressions
+.PP
+The simplest regular expression is a literal string of characters
+enclosed in slashes,
+like
+.P1
+/smith/
+.P2
+This
+is actually a complete
+.IT awk
+program which
+will print all lines which contain any occurrence
+of the name ``smith''.
+If a line contains ``smith''
+as part of a larger word,
+it will also be printed, as in
+.P1
+blacksmithing
+.P2
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+regular expressions include the regular expression
+forms found in
+the
+.UC UNIX
+text editor
+.IT ed\|
+.[
+unix program manual
+.]
+and
+.IT grep
+(without back-referencing).
+In addition,
+.IT awk
+allows
+parentheses for grouping, | for alternatives,
+.UL +
+for ``one or more'', and
+.UL ?
+for ``zero or one'',
+all as in
+.IT lex .
+Character classes
+may be abbreviated:
+.UL [a\-zA\-Z0\-9]
+is the set of all letters and digits.
+As an example,
+the
+.IT awk
+program
+.P1
+/[Aa]ho\||[Ww]einberger\||[Kk]ernighan/
+.P2
+will print all lines which contain any of the names
+``Aho,'' ``Weinberger'' or ``Kernighan,''
+whether capitalized or not.
+.PP
+Regular expressions
+(with the extensions listed above)
+must be enclosed in slashes,
+just as in
+.IT ed
+and
+.IT sed .
+Within a regular expression,
+blanks and the regular expression
+metacharacters are significant.
+To turn of the magic meaning
+of one of the regular expression characters,
+precede it with a backslash.
+An example is the pattern
+.P1
+/\|\e/\^.\^*\e//
+.P2
+which matches any string of characters
+enclosed in slashes.
+.PP
+One can also specify that any field or variable
+matches
+a regular expression (or does not match it) with the operators
+.UL ~
+and
+.UL !~ .
+The program
+.P1
+$1 ~ /[jJ]ohn/
+.P2
+prints all lines where the first field matches ``john'' or ``John.''
+Notice that this will also match ``Johnson'', ``St. Johnsbury'', and so on.
+To restrict it to exactly
+.UL [jJ]ohn ,
+use
+.P1
+$1 ~ /^[jJ]ohn$/
+.P2
+The caret ^ refers to the beginning
+of a line or field;
+the dollar sign
+.UL $
+refers to the end.
+.NH 2
+Relational Expressions
+.PP
+An
+.IT awk
+pattern can be a relational expression
+involving the usual relational operators
+.UL < ,
+.UL <= ,
+.UL == ,
+.UL != ,
+.UL >= ,
+and
+.UL > .
+An example is
+.P1
+$2 > $1 + 100
+.P2
+which selects lines where the second field
+is at least 100 greater than the first field.
+Similarly,
+.P1
+NF % 2 == 0
+.P2
+prints lines with an even number of fields.
+.PP
+In relational tests, if neither operand is numeric,
+a string comparison is made;
+otherwise it is numeric.
+Thus,
+.P1
+$1 >= "s"
+.P2
+selects lines that begin with an
+.UL s ,
+.UL t ,
+.UL u ,
+etc.
+In the absence of any other information,
+fields are treated as strings, so
+the program
+.P1
+$1 > $2
+.P2
+will perform a string comparison.
+.NH 2
+Combinations of Patterns
+.PP
+A pattern can be any boolean combination of patterns,
+using the operators
+.UL \||\||
+(or),
+.UL &&
+(and), and
+.UL !
+(not).
+For example,
+.P1
+$1 >= "s" && $1 < "t" && $1 != "smith"
+.P2
+selects lines where the first field begins with ``s'', but is not ``smith''.
+.UL &&
+and
+.UL \||\||
+guarantee that their operands
+will be evaluated
+from left to right;
+evaluation stops as soon as the truth or falsehood
+is determined.
+.NH 2
+Pattern Ranges
+.PP
+The ``pattern'' that selects an action may also
+consist of two patterns separated by a comma, as in
+.P1
+pat1, pat2	{ ... }
+.P2
+In this case, the action is performed for each line between
+an occurrence of
+.UL pat1
+and the next occurrence of
+.UL pat2
+(inclusive).
+For example,
+.P1
+/start/, /stop/
+.P2
+prints all lines between
+.UL start
+and
+.UL stop ,
+while
+.P1
+NR == 100, NR == 200 { ... }
+.P2
+does the action for lines 100 through 200
+of the input.
+.NH 1
+Actions
+.PP
+An
+.IT awk
+action is a sequence of action statements
+terminated by newlines or semicolons.
+These action statements can be used to do a variety of
+bookkeeping and string manipulating tasks.
+.NH 2
+Built-in Functions
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+provides a ``length'' function
+to compute the length of a string of characters.
+This program prints each record,
+preceded by its length:
+.P1
+{print length, $0}
+.P2
+.UL length
+by itself is a ``pseudo-variable'' which
+yields the length of the current record;
+.UL length(argument)
+is a function which yields the length of its argument,
+as in
+the equivalent
+.P1
+{print length($0), $0}
+.P2
+The argument may be any expression.
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+also
+provides the arithmetic functions
+.UL sqrt ,
+.UL log ,
+.UL exp ,
+and
+.UL int ,
+for
+square root,
+base
+.IT e
+logarithm,
+exponential,
+and integer part of their respective arguments.
+.PP
+The name of one of these built-in functions,
+without argument or parentheses,
+stands for the value of the function on the
+whole record.
+The program
+.P1
+length < 10 || length > 20
+.P2
+prints lines whose length
+is less than 10 or greater
+than 20.
+.PP
+The function
+.UL substr(s,\ m,\ n)
+produces the substring of
+.UL s
+that begins at position
+.UL m
+(origin 1)
+and is at most
+.UL n
+characters long.
+If
+.UL n
+is omitted, the substring goes to the end of
+.UL s .
+The function
+.UL index(s1,\ s2)
+returns the position where the string
+.UL s2
+occurs in
+.UL s1 ,
+or zero if it does not.
+.PP
+The function
+.UL sprintf(f,\ e1,\ e2,\ ...)
+produces the value of the expressions
+.UL e1 ,
+.UL e2 ,
+etc.,
+in the
+.UL printf
+format specified by
+.UL f .
+Thus, for example,
+.P1
+x = sprintf("%8.2f %10ld", $1, $2)
+.P2
+sets
+.UL x
+to the string produced by formatting
+the values of
+.UL $1
+and
+.UL $2 .
+.NH 2
+Variables, Expressions, and Assignments
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+variables take on numeric (floating point)
+or string values according to context.
+For example, in
+.P1
+x = 1
+.P2
+.UL x
+is clearly a number, while in
+.P1
+x = "smith"
+.P2
+it is clearly a string.
+Strings are converted to numbers and
+vice versa whenever context demands it.
+For instance,
+.P1
+x = "3" + "4"
+.P2
+assigns 7 to
+.UL x .
+Strings which cannot be interpreted
+as numbers in a numerical context
+will generally have numeric value zero,
+but it is unwise to count on this behavior.
+.PP
+By default, variables (other than built-ins) are initialized to the null string,
+which has numerical value zero;
+this eliminates the need for most
+.UL BEGIN
+sections.
+For example, the sums of the first two fields can be computed by
+.P1
+	{ s1 += $1; s2 += $2 }
+END	{ print s1, s2 }
+.P2
+.PP
+Arithmetic is done internally in floating point.
+The arithmetic operators are
+.UL + ,
+.UL \- ,
+.UL \(** ,
+.UL / ,
+and
+.UL %
+(mod).
+The C increment
+.UL ++
+and
+decrement
+.UL \-\-
+operators are also available,
+and so are the assignment operators
+.UL += ,
+.UL \-= ,
+.UL *= ,
+.UL /= ,
+and
+.UL %= .
+These operators may all be used in expressions.
+.NH 2
+Field Variables
+.PP
+Fields in
+.IT awk
+share essentially all of the properties of variables _
+they may be used in arithmetic or string operations,
+and may be assigned to.
+Thus one can
+replace the first field with a sequence number like this:
+.P1
+{ $1 = NR; print }
+.P2
+or
+accumulate two fields into a third, like this:
+.P1
+{ $1 = $2 + $3; print $0 }
+.P2
+or assign a string to a field:
+.P1
+{ if ($3 > 1000)
+	$3 = "too big"
+  print
+}
+.P2
+which replaces the third field by ``too big'' when it is,
+and in any case prints the record.
+.PP
+Field references may be numerical expressions,
+as in
+.P1
+{ print $i, $(i+1), $(i+n) }
+.P2
+Whether a field is deemed numeric or string depends on context;
+in ambiguous cases like
+.P1
+if ($1 == $2) ...
+.P2
+fields are treated as strings.
+.PP
+Each input line is split into fields automatically as necessary.
+It is also possible to split any variable or string
+into fields:
+.P1
+n = split(s, array, sep)
+.P2
+splits the
+the string
+.UL s
+into
+.UL array[1] ,
+\&...,
+.UL array[n] .
+The number of elements found is returned.
+If the
+.UL sep
+argument is provided, it is used as the field separator;
+otherwise
+.UL FS
+is used as the separator.
+.NH 2
+String Concatenation
+.PP
+Strings may be concatenated.
+For example
+.P1
+length($1 $2 $3)
+.P2
+returns the length of the first three fields.
+Or in a
+.UL print
+statement,
+.P1
+print $1 " is " $2
+.P2
+prints
+the two fields separated by `` is ''.
+Variables and numeric expressions may also appear in concatenations.
+.NH 2
+Arrays
+.PP
+Array elements are not declared;
+they spring into existence by being mentioned.
+Subscripts may have
+.ul
+any
+non-null
+value, including non-numeric strings.
+As an example of a conventional numeric subscript,
+the statement
+.P1
+x[NR] = $0
+.P2
+assigns the current input record to
+the
+.UL NR -th
+element of the array
+.UL x .
+In fact, it is possible in principle (though perhaps slow)
+to process the entire input in a random order with the
+.IT awk
+program
+.P1
+	{ x[NR] = $0 }
+END	{ \fI... program ...\fP }
+.P2
+The first action merely records each input line in
+the array
+.UL x .
+.PP
+Array elements may be named by non-numeric values,
+which gives
+.IT awk
+a capability rather like the associative memory of
+Snobol tables.
+Suppose the input contains fields with values like
+.UL apple ,
+.UL orange ,
+etc.
+Then the program
+.P1
+/apple/	{ x["apple"]++ }
+/orange/	{ x["orange"]++ }
+END		{ print x["apple"], x["orange"] }
+.P2
+increments counts for the named array elements,
+and prints them at the end of the input.
+.NH 2
+Flow-of-Control Statements
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+provides the basic flow-of-control statements
+.UL if-else ,
+.UL while ,
+.UL for ,
+and statement grouping with braces, as in C.
+We showed the
+.UL if
+statement in section 3.3 without describing it.
+The condition in parentheses is evaluated;
+if it is true, the statement following the
+.UL if
+is done.
+The
+.UL else
+part is optional.
+.PP
+The
+.UL while
+statement is exactly like that of C.
+For example, to print all input fields one per line,
+.P1
+i = 1
+while (i <= NF) {
+	print $i
+	++i
+}
+.P2
+.PP
+The
+.UL for
+statement is also exactly that of C:
+.P1
+for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++)
+	print $i
+.P2
+does the same job as the
+.UL while
+statement above.
+.PP
+There is an alternate form of the
+.UL for
+statement which is suited for accessing the
+elements of an associative array:
+.P1
+for (i in array)
+	\fIstatement\f3
+.P2
+does
+.ul
+statement
+with 
+.UL i
+set in turn to each element of
+.UL array .
+The elements are accessed in an apparently random order.
+Chaos will ensue if 
+.UL i
+is altered, or if any new elements are
+accessed during the loop.
+.PP
+The expression in the condition part of an
+.UL if ,
+.UL while
+or
+.UL for
+can include relational operators like
+.UL < ,
+.UL <= ,
+.UL > ,
+.UL >= ,
+.UL ==
+(``is equal to''),
+and
+.UL !=
+(``not equal to'');
+regular expression matches with the match operators
+.UL ~
+and
+.UL !~ ;
+the logical operators
+.UL \||\|| ,
+.UL && ,
+and
+.UL ! ;
+and of course parentheses for grouping.
+.PP
+The
+.UL break
+statement causes an immediate exit
+from an enclosing
+.UL while
+or
+.UL for ;
+the
+.UL continue
+statement
+causes the next iteration to begin.
+.PP
+The statement
+.UL next
+causes
+.IT awk
+to skip immediately to
+the next record and begin scanning the patterns from the top.
+The statement
+.UL exit
+causes the program to behave as if the end of the input
+had occurred.
+.PP
+Comments may be placed in
+.IT awk
+programs:
+they begin with the character
+.UL #
+and end with the end of the line,
+as in
+.P1
+print x, y	# this is a comment
+.P2
+.NH
+Design
+.PP
+The
+.UX
+system
+already provides several programs that
+operate by passing input through a
+selection mechanism.
+.IT Grep ,
+the first and simplest, merely prints all lines which
+match a single specified pattern.
+.IT Egrep
+provides more general patterns, i.e., regular expressions
+in full generality;
+.IT fgrep
+searches for a set of keywords with a particularly fast algorithm.
+.IT Sed\|
+.[
+unix programm manual
+.]
+provides most of the editing facilities of
+the editor
+.IT ed  ,
+applied to a stream of input.
+None of these programs provides
+numeric capabilities,
+logical relations,
+or variables.
+.PP
+.IT Lex\|
+.[
+lesk lexical analyzer cstr
+.]
+provides general regular expression recognition capabilities,
+and, by serving as a C program generator,
+is essentially open-ended in its capabilities.
+The use of
+.IT lex ,
+however, requires a knowledge of C programming,
+and a
+.IT lex
+program must be compiled and loaded before use,
+which discourages its use for one-shot applications.
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+is an attempt
+to fill in another part of the matrix of possibilities.
+It
+provides general regular expression capabilities
+and an implicit input/output loop.
+But it also provides convenient numeric processing,
+variables,
+more general selection,
+and control flow in the actions.
+It
+does not require compilation or a knowledge of C.
+Finally,
+.IT awk
+provides
+a convenient way to access fields within lines;
+it is unique in this respect.
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+also tries to integrate strings and numbers
+completely,
+by treating all quantities as both string and numeric,
+deciding which representation is appropriate
+as late as possible.
+In most cases the user can simply ignore the differences.
+.PP
+Most of the effort in developing
+.I awk
+went into deciding what
+.I awk
+should or should not do
+(for instance, it doesn't do string substitution)
+and what the syntax should be
+(no explicit operator for concatenation)
+rather
+than on writing or debugging the code.
+We have tried
+to make the syntax powerful
+but easy to use and well adapted
+to scanning files.
+For example,
+the absence of declarations and implicit initializations,
+while probably a bad idea for a general-purpose programming language,
+is desirable in a language
+that is meant to be used for tiny programs
+that may even be composed on the command line.
+.PP
+In practice,
+.IT awk
+usage seems to fall into two broad categories.
+One is what might be called ``report generation'' \(em
+processing an input to extract counts,
+sums, sub-totals, etc.
+This also includes the writing of trivial
+data validation programs,
+such as verifying that a field contains only numeric information
+or that certain delimiters are properly balanced.
+The combination of textual and numeric processing is invaluable here.
+.PP
+A second area of use is as a data transformer,
+converting data from the form produced by one program
+into that expected by another.
+The simplest examples merely select fields, perhaps with rearrangements.
+.NH
+Implementation
+.PP
+The actual implementation of
+.IT awk
+uses the language development tools available
+on the
+.UC UNIX
+operating system.
+The grammar is specified with
+.IT yacc ;
+.[
+yacc johnson cstr
+.]
+the lexical analysis is done by
+.IT lex ;
+the regular expression recognizers are
+deterministic finite automata
+constructed directly from the expressions.
+An
+.IT awk
+program is translated into a 
+parse tree which is then directly executed
+by a simple interpreter.
+.PP
+.IT Awk
+was designed for ease of use rather than processing speed;
+the delayed evaluation of variable types
+and the necessity to break input
+into fields makes high speed difficult to achieve in any case.
+Nonetheless,
+the program has not proven to be unworkably slow.
+.PP
+Table I below shows the execution (user + system) time
+on a PDP-11/70 of
+the
+.UC UNIX
+programs
+.IT wc ,
+.IT grep ,
+.IT egrep ,
+.IT fgrep ,
+.IT sed ,
+.IT lex ,
+and
+.IT awk
+on the following simple tasks:
+.IP "\ \ 1."
+count the number of lines.
+.IP "\ \ 2."
+print all lines containing ``doug''.
+.IP "\ \ 3."
+print all lines containing ``doug'', ``ken'' or ``dmr''.
+.IP "\ \ 4."
+print the third field of each line.
+.IP "\ \ 5."
+print the third and second fields of each line, in that order.
+.IP "\ \ 6."
+append all lines containing ``doug'', ``ken'', and ``dmr''
+to files ``jdoug'', ``jken'', and ``jdmr'', respectively.
+.IP "\ \ 7."
+print each line prefixed by ``line-number\ :\ ''.
+.IP "\ \ 8."
+sum the fourth column of a table.
+.LP
+The program
+.IT wc
+merely counts words, lines and characters in its input;
+we have already mentioned the others.
+In all cases the input was a file containing
+10,000 lines
+as created by the
+command
+.IT "ls \-l" ;
+each line has the form
+.P1
+-rw-rw-rw- 1 ava 123 Oct 15 17:05 xxx
+.P2
+The total length of this input is
+452,960 characters.
+Times for
+.IT lex
+do not include compile or load.
+.PP
+As might be expected,
+.IT awk
+is not as fast as the specialized tools
+.IT wc ,
+.IT sed ,
+or the programs in the
+.IT grep
+family,
+but
+is faster than the more general tool
+.IT lex .
+In all cases, the tasks were
+about as easy to express as
+.IT awk
+programs
+as programs in these other languages;
+tasks involving fields were
+considerably easier to express as
+.IT awk
+programs.
+Some of the test programs are shown in
+.IT awk ,
+.IT sed
+and
+.IT lex .
+.[
+$LIST$
+.]
+.1C
+.TS
+center;
+c c c c c c c c c
+c c c c c c c c c
+c|n|n|n|n|n|n|n|n|.
+				Task
+Program	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
+_
+\fIwc\fR	8.6
+\fIgrep\fR	11.7	13.1
+\fIegrep\fR	6.2	11.5	11.6
+\fIfgrep\fR	7.7	13.8	16.1
+\fIsed\fR	10.2	11.6	15.8	29.0	30.5	16.1
+\fIlex\fR	65.1	150.1	144.2	67.7	70.3	104.0	81.7	92.8
+\fIawk\fR	15.0	25.6	29.9	33.3	38.9	46.4	71.4	31.1
+_
+.TE
+.sp
+.ce
+\fBTable I.\fR  Execution Times of Programs. (Times are in sec.)
+.sp 2
+.2C
+.PP
+The programs for some of these jobs are shown below.
+The
+.IT lex
+programs are generally too long to show.
+.LP
+AWK:
+.LP
+.P1
+1.	END	{print NR}
+.P2
+.P1
+2.	/doug/
+.P2
+.P1
+3.	/ken|doug|dmr/
+.P2
+.P1
+4.	{print $3}
+.P2
+.P1
+5.	{print $3, $2}
+.P2
+.P1
+6.	/ken/	{print >"jken"}
+	/doug/	{print >"jdoug"}
+	/dmr/	{print >"jdmr"}
+.P2
+.P1
+7.	{print NR ": " $0}
+.P2
+.P1
+8.		{sum = sum + $4}
+	END	{print sum}
+.P2
+.LP
+SED:
+.LP
+.P1
+1.	$=
+.P2
+.P1
+2.	/doug/p
+.P2
+.P1
+3.	/doug/p
+	/doug/d
+	/ken/p
+	/ken/d
+	/dmr/p
+	/dmr/d
+.P2
+.P1
+4.	/[^ ]* [ ]*[^ ]* [ ]*\e([^ ]*\e) .*/s//\e1/p
+.P2
+.P1
+5.	/[^ ]* [ ]*\e([^ ]*\e) [ ]*\e([^ ]*\e) .*/s//\e2 \e1/p
+.P2
+.P1
+6.	/ken/w jken
+	/doug/w jdoug
+	/dmr/w jdmr
+.P2
+.LP
+LEX:
+.LP
+.P1
+1.	%{
+	int i;
+	%}
+	%%
+	\en	i++;
+	.	;
+	%%
+	yywrap() {
+		printf("%d\en", i);
+	}
+.P2
+.P1
+2.	%%
+	^.*doug.*$	printf("%s\en", yytext);
+	.	;
+	\en	;
+.P2
diff --git a/usr/doc/bc b/usr/doc/bc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..58d839c945
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/bc
@@ -0,0 +1,1059 @@
+.RP
+.TL
+BC \- An Arbitrary Precision Desk-Calculator Language
+.AU
+Lorinda Cherry
+.AU
+Robert Morris
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+BC is a language and a compiler for doing arbitrary precision arithmetic
+on the PDP-11 under the
+.UX
+time-sharing
+system.  The output of the compiler is interpreted and executed by
+a collection of routines which can input, output, and do
+arithmetic on indefinitely large integers and on scaled fixed-point
+numbers.
+.PP
+These routines are themselves based on a dynamic storage allocator.
+Overflow does not occur until all available core storage
+is exhausted.
+.PP
+The language has a complete control structure as well as immediate-mode
+operation.  Functions can be defined and saved for later execution.
+.PP
+Two five hundred-digit numbers can be multiplied to give a
+thousand digit result in about ten seconds.
+.PP
+A small collection of library functions is also available,
+including sin, cos, arctan, log, exponential, and Bessel functions of
+integer order.
+.PP
+Some of the uses of this compiler are
+.IP \-
+to do computation with large integers,
+.IP \-
+to do computation accurate to many decimal places,
+.IP \-
+conversion of numbers from one base to another base.
+.AE
+.PP
+.SH
+Introduction
+.PP
+BC is a language and a compiler for doing arbitrary precision
+arithmetic on the
+.UX
+time-sharing system [1].
+The compiler was written to make conveniently available a
+collection of routines (called DC [5]) which are capable of doing
+arithmetic on integers of arbitrary size.  The compiler
+is by no means intended to provide a complete programming
+language.
+It is a minimal language facility.
+.PP
+There is a scaling provision that permits the
+use of decimal point notation.
+Provision is made for input and output in bases other than
+decimal.  Numbers can be converted from decimal to octal by
+simply setting the output base to equal 8.
+.PP
+The actual limit on the number of digits that can
+be handled depends on the amount of storage available on the machine.
+Manipulation of numbers with many hundreds of digits
+is possible even on the smallest versions of
+.UX .
+.PP
+The syntax of BC has been deliberately selected to agree
+substantially with the C language [2].  Those who
+are familiar with C will find few surprises in this language.
+.SH
+Simple Computations with Integers
+.PP
+The simplest kind of statement is an arithmetic expression
+on a line by itself.
+For instance, if you type in the line:
+.DS
+142857 + 285714
+.DE
+the program responds immediately with the line
+.DS
+428571
+.DE
+The operators \-, *, /, %, and ^ can also be used; they
+indicate subtraction, multiplication, division, remaindering, and
+exponentiation, respectively.  Division of integers produces an
+integer result truncated toward zero.
+Division by zero produces an error
+comment.
+.PP
+Any term in an expression may be prefixed by a minus sign to
+indicate that it is to be negated (the `unary' minus sign).
+The expression
+.DS
+7+\-3
+.DE
+is interpreted to mean that \-3 is to be added to 7.
+.PP
+More complex expressions with several operators and with
+parentheses are interpreted just as in
+Fortran, with ^ having the greatest binding
+power, then * and % and /, and finally + and \-.
+Contents of parentheses are evaluated before material
+outside the parentheses.
+Exponentiations are
+performed from right to left and the other operators
+from left to right.
+The two expressions
+.DS
+a^b^c  and  a^(b^c)
+.DE
+are equivalent, as are the two expressions
+.DS
+a*b*c  and  (a*b)*c
+.DE
+BC shares with Fortran and C the undesirable convention that
+.DS
+a/b*c  is equivalent to  (a/b)*c
+.DE
+.PP
+Internal storage registers to hold numbers have single lower-case
+letter names.  The value of an expression can be assigned to
+a register in the usual way.  The statement
+.DS
+x = x + 3
+.DE
+has the effect of increasing by three the value of the contents of the
+register named x.
+When, as in this case, the outermost operator is an =, the
+assignment is performed but the result is not printed.
+Only 26 of these named storage registers are available.
+.PP
+There is a built-in square root function whose
+result is truncated to an integer (but see scaling below).
+The lines
+.DS
+x = sqrt(191)
+x
+.DE
+produce the printed result
+.DS
+13
+.DE
+.SH
+Bases
+.PP
+There are special internal quantities, called `ibase' and `obase'.
+The contents of `ibase', initially set to 10,
+determines the base used for interpreting numbers read in.
+For example, the lines
+.DS
+ibase = 8
+11
+.DE
+will produce the output line
+.DS
+9
+.DE
+and you are all set up to do octal to decimal conversions.
+Beware, however of trying to change the input base back
+to decimal by typing
+.DS
+ibase = 10
+.DE
+Because the number 10 is interpreted as octal, this statement will
+have no effect.
+For those who deal in hexadecimal notation,
+the characters A\-F are permitted in numbers
+(no matter what base is in effect)
+and are
+interpreted as digits having values 10\-15 respectively.
+The statement
+.DS
+ibase = A
+.DE
+will change you back to decimal input base no matter what the
+current input base is.
+Negative and large positive input bases are
+permitted but useless.
+No mechanism has been provided for the input of arbitrary
+numbers in bases less than 1 and greater than 16.
+.PP
+The contents of `obase', initially set to 10, are used as the base for output
+numbers.  The lines
+.DS
+obase = 16
+1000
+.DE
+will produce the output line
+.DS
+3E8
+.DE
+which is to be interpreted as a 3-digit hexadecimal number.
+Very large output bases are permitted, and they are sometimes useful.
+For example, large numbers can be output in groups of five digits
+by setting `obase' to 100000.
+Strange (i.e. 1, 0, or negative) output bases are
+handled appropriately.
+.PP
+Very large numbers are split across lines with 70 characters per line.
+Lines which are continued end with \\.
+Decimal output conversion is practically instantaneous, but output
+of very large numbers (i.e., more than 100 digits) with other bases
+is rather slow.
+Non-decimal output conversion of
+a one hundred digit number takes about
+three seconds.
+.PP
+It is best to remember that `ibase' and `obase' have no effect
+whatever on the course of internal computation or
+on the evaluation of expressions, but only affect input and
+output conversion, respectively.
+.SH
+Scaling
+.PP
+A third special internal quantity called `scale' is
+used to determine the scale of calculated
+quantities.
+Numbers may have
+up to 99 decimal digits after the decimal point.
+This fractional part is retained in further computations.
+We refer to the number of digits after the decimal point of
+a number as its scale.
+.PP
+When two scaled numbers are combined by
+means of one of the arithmetic operations, the result
+has a scale determined by the following rules.  For
+addition and subtraction, the scale of the result is the larger
+of the scales of the two operands.  In this case,
+there is never any truncation of the result.
+For multiplications, the scale of the result is never
+less than the maximum of the two scales of the operands,
+never more than the sum of the scales of the operands
+and, subject to those two restrictions,
+the scale of the result is set equal to the contents of the internal
+quantity `scale'.
+The scale of a quotient is the contents of the internal
+quantity `scale'.  The scale of a remainder is
+the sum of the scales of the quotient and the divisor.
+The result of an exponentiation is scaled as if
+the implied multiplications were performed.
+An exponent must be an integer.
+The scale of a square root is set to the maximum of the scale
+of the argument and the contents of `scale'.
+.PP
+All of the internal operations are actually carried out in terms
+of integers, with digits being discarded when necessary.
+In every case where digits are discarded, truncation and
+not rounding is performed.
+.PP
+The contents of
+`scale' must be no greater than
+99 and no less than 0.  It is initially set to 0.
+In case you need more than 99 fraction digits, you may arrange
+your own scaling.
+.PP
+The internal quantities `scale', `ibase', and `obase' can be
+used in expressions just like other variables.
+The line
+.DS
+scale = scale + 1
+.DE
+increases the value of `scale' by one, and the line
+.DS
+scale
+.DE
+causes the current value of `scale' to be printed.
+.PP
+The value of `scale' retains its meaning as a
+number of decimal digits to be retained in internal
+computation even when `ibase' or `obase' are not equal to 10.
+The internal computations (which are still conducted in decimal,
+regardless of the bases) are performed to the specified number
+of decimal digits, never hexadecimal or octal or any
+other kind of digits.
+.SH
+Functions
+.PP
+The name of a function is a single lower-case letter.
+Function names are permitted to collide with simple
+variable names.
+Twenty-six different defined functions are permitted
+in addition to the twenty-six variable names.
+The line
+.DS
+	define a(x){
+.DE
+begins the definition of a function with one argument.
+This line must be followed by one or more statements,
+which make up the body of the function, ending
+with a right brace }.
+Return of control from a function occurs when a return
+statement is executed or when the end of the function is reached.
+The return statement can take either
+of the two forms
+.DS
+return
+return(x)
+.DE
+In the first case, the value of the function is 0, and in
+the second, the value of the expression in parentheses.
+.PP
+Variables used in the function can be declared as automatic
+by a statement of the form
+.DS
+auto x,y,z
+.DE
+There can be only one `auto' statement in a function and it must
+be the first statement in the definition.
+These automatic variables are allocated space and initialized
+to zero on entry to the function and thrown away on return.  The
+values of any variables with the same names outside the function
+are not disturbed.
+Functions may be called recursively and the automatic variables
+at each level of call are protected.
+The parameters named in a function definition are treated in
+the same way as the automatic variables of that function
+with the single exception that they are given a value
+on entry to the function.
+An example of a function definition is
+.DS
+	define a(x,y){
+		auto z
+		z = x*y
+		return(z)
+	}
+.DE
+The value of this function, when called, will be the
+product of its
+two arguments.
+.PP
+A function is called by the appearance of its name
+followed by a string of arguments enclosed in
+parentheses and separated by commas.
+The result
+is unpredictable if the wrong number of arguments is used.
+.PP
+Functions with no arguments are defined and called using
+parentheses with nothing between them: b().
+.PP
+If the function
+.ft I
+a
+.ft
+above has been defined, then the line
+.DS
+a(7,3.14)
+.DE
+would cause the result 21.98 to be printed and the line
+.DS
+x = a(a(3,4),5)
+.DE
+would cause the value of x to become 60.
+.SH
+Subscripted Variables
+.PP
+A single lower-case letter variable name
+followed by an expression in brackets is called a subscripted
+variable (an array element).
+The variable name is called the array name and the expression
+in brackets is called the subscript.
+Only one-dimensional arrays are
+permitted.  The names of arrays are permitted to
+collide with the names of simple variables and function names.
+Any fractional
+part of a subscript is discarded before use.
+Subscripts must be greater than or equal to zero and 
+less than or equal to 2047.
+.PP
+Subscripted variables may be freely used in expressions, in
+function calls, and in return statements.
+.PP
+An array name may be used as an argument to a function,
+or may be declared as automatic in
+a function definition by the use of empty brackets:
+.DS
+f(a[\|])
+define f(a[\|])
+auto a[\|]
+.DE
+When an array name is so used, the whole contents of the array
+are copied for the use of the function, and thrown away on exit
+from the function.
+Array names which refer to whole arrays cannot be used
+in any other contexts.
+.SH
+Control Statements
+.PP
+The `if', the `while', and the `for' statements
+may be used to alter the flow within programs or to cause iteration.
+The range of each of them is a statement or
+a compound statement consisting of a collection of
+statements enclosed in braces.
+They are written in the following way
+.DS
+if(relation) statement
+while(relation) statement
+for(expression1; relation; expression2) statement
+.DE
+or
+.DS
+if(relation) {statements}
+while(relation) {statements}
+for(expression1; relation; expression2) {statements}
+.DE
+.PP
+A relation in one of the control statements is an expression of the form
+.DS
+x>y
+.DE
+where  two expressions are related by one of the six relational
+operators <, >, <=, >=, ==, or !=.
+The relation ==
+stands for `equal to' and != stands for `not equal to'.
+The meaning of the remaining relational operators is
+clear.
+.PP
+BEWARE of using = instead of == in a relational.  Unfortunately,
+both of them are legal, so you will not get a diagnostic
+message, but = really will not do a comparison.
+.PP
+The `if' statement causes execution of its range
+if and only if the relation is true.
+Then control passes to the next statement in sequence.
+.PP
+The `while' statement causes execution of its range
+repeatedly as long as the relation
+is true.  The relation is tested before each execution
+of its range and if the relation
+is false, control passes to the next statement beyond the range
+of the while.
+.PP
+The `for' statement begins
+by executing `expression1'.  Then the relation is tested
+and, if true, the statements in the range of the `for' are executed.
+Then `expression2' is executed.  The relation is tested, and so on.
+The typical use of the `for' statement is for a controlled iteration,
+as in the statement
+.DS
+for(i=1; i<=10; i=i+1) i
+.DE
+which will print the integers from 1 to 10.
+Here are some examples of the use of the control statements.
+.DS
+define f(n){
+auto i, x
+x=1
+for(i=1; i<=n; i=i+1) x=x*i
+return(x)
+}
+.DE
+The line
+.DS
+	f(a)
+.DE
+will print
+.ft I
+a
+.ft
+factorial if
+.ft I
+a
+.ft
+is a positive integer.
+Here is the definition of a function which will
+compute values of the binomial coefficient
+(m and n are assumed to be positive integers).
+.DS
+define b(n,m){
+auto x, j
+x=1
+for(j=1; j<=m; j=j+1) x=x*(n\-j+1)/j
+return(x)
+}
+.DE
+The following function computes values of the exponential function
+by summing the appropriate series
+without regard for possible truncation errors:
+.DS
+scale = 20
+define e(x){
+	auto a, b, c, d, n
+	a = 1
+	b = 1
+	c = 1
+	d = 0
+	n = 1
+	while(1==1){
+		a = a*x
+		b = b*n
+		c = c + a/b
+		n = n + 1
+		if(c==d) return(c)
+		d = c
+	}
+}
+.DE
+.SH
+Some Details
+.PP
+There are some language features that every user should know
+about even if he will not use them.
+.PP
+Normally statements are typed one to a line.  It is also permissible
+to type several statements on a line separated by semicolons.
+.PP
+If an assignment statement is parenthesized, it then has
+a value and it can be used anywhere that an expression can.
+For example, the line
+.DS
+(x=y+17)
+.DE
+not only makes the indicated assignment, but also prints the
+resulting value.
+.PP
+Here is an example of a use of the value of an
+assignment statement even when it is not parenthesized.
+.DS
+x = a[i=i+1]
+.DE
+causes a value to be assigned to x and also increments i
+before it is used as a subscript.
+.PP
+The following constructs work in BC in exactly the same manner
+as they do in the C language.  Consult the appendix or the
+C manuals [2] for their exact workings.
+.DS
+.ta 2i
+x=y=z  is the same as	x=(y=z)
+x =+ y	x = x+y
+x =\- y	x = x\-y
+x =* y	x = x*y
+x =/ y	x = x/y
+x =% y	x = x%y
+x =^ y	x = x^y
+x++	(x=x+1)\-1
+x\-\-	(x=x\-1)+1
+++x	x = x+1
+\-\-x	x = x\-1
+.DE
+Even if you don't intend to use the constructs,
+if you type one inadvertently, something correct but unexpected
+may happen.
+.PP
+WARNING!  In some of these constructions, spaces are
+significant.
+There is a real difference between
+x=\-y and x= \-y.
+The first replaces x by x\-y and the second by \-y.
+.SH
+Three Important Things
+.PP
+1.  To exit a BC program, type `quit'.
+.PP
+2. There is a comment convention identical to that of C and
+of PL/I.  Comments begin with `/*' and end with `*/'.
+.PP
+3. There is a library of math functions which may be obtained by
+typing at command level
+.DS
+bc \-l
+.DE
+This command will load a set of library functions
+which, at the time of writing, consists of sine (named `s'),
+cosine (`c'), arctangent (`a'), natural logarithm (`l'),
+exponential (`e') and Bessel functions of integer order (`j(n,x)').  Doubtless more functions will be added
+in time.
+The library sets the scale to 20.  You can reset it to something
+else if you like.
+The design of these mathematical library routines
+is discussed elsewhere [3].
+.PP
+If you type
+.DS
+bc file ...
+.DE
+BC will read and execute the named file or files before accepting
+commands from the keyboard.  In this way, you may load your
+favorite programs and function definitions.
+.SH
+Acknowledgement
+.PP
+The compiler is written in YACC [4]; its original
+version  was written by S. C. Johnson.
+.SH
+References
+.IP [1]
+K. Thompson and D. M. Ritchie,
+.ft I
+UNIX Programmer's Manual,
+.ft
+Bell Laboratories,
+1978.
+.IP [2]
+B. W. Kernighan and
+D. M. Ritchie,
+.ft I
+The C Programming Language,
+.ft
+Prentice-Hall, 1978.
+.IP [3]
+R. Morris,
+.ft I
+A Library of Reference Standard Mathematical Subroutines,
+.ft
+Bell Laboratories internal memorandum, 1975.
+.IP [4]
+S. C. Johnson,
+.ft I
+YACC \(em Yet Another Compiler-Compiler.
+.ft
+Bell Laboratories Computing Science Technical Report #32, 1978.
+.IP [5]
+R. Morris and L. L. Cherry,
+.ft I
+DC \- An Interactive Desk Calculator.
+.ft
+.LP
+.bp
+.ft B
+.DS C
+Appendix
+.DE
+.ft
+.NH
+Notation
+.PP
+In the following pages syntactic categories are in \fIitalics\fP;
+literals are in \fBbold\fP; material in brackets [\|] is optional.
+.NH
+Tokens
+.PP
+Tokens consist of keywords, identifiers, constants, operators,
+and separators.
+Token separators may be blanks, tabs or comments.
+Newline characters or semicolons separate statements.
+.NH 2
+Comments
+.PP
+Comments are introduced by the characters /* and terminated by
+*/.
+.NH 2
+Identifiers
+.PP
+There are three kinds of identifiers \- ordinary identifiers, array identifiers
+and function identifiers.
+All three types consist of single lower-case letters.
+Array identifiers are followed by square brackets, possibly
+enclosing an expression describing a subscript.
+Arrays are singly dimensioned and may contain up to 2048
+elements.
+Indexing begins at zero so an array may be indexed from 0 to 2047.
+Subscripts are truncated to integers.
+Function identifiers are followed by parentheses, possibly enclosing arguments.
+The three types of identifiers do not conflict;
+a program can have a variable named \fBx\fP,
+an array named \fBx\fP and a function named \fBx\fP, all of which are separate and
+distinct.
+.NH 2
+Keywords
+.PP
+The following are reserved keywords:
+.ft B
+.ta .5i 1.0i
+.nf
+	ibase	if
+	obase	break
+	scale	define
+	sqrt	auto
+	length	return
+	while	quit
+	for
+.fi
+.ft
+.NH 2
+Constants
+.PP
+Constants consist of arbitrarily long numbers
+with an optional decimal point.
+The hexadecimal digits \fBA\fP\-\fBF\fP are also recognized as digits with
+values 10\-15, respectively.
+.NH 1
+Expressions
+.PP
+The value of an expression is printed unless the main
+operator is an assignment.
+Precedence is the same as the order
+of presentation here, with highest appearing first.
+Left or right associativity, where applicable, is
+discussed with each operator.
+.bp
+.NH 2
+Primitive expressions
+.NH 3
+Named expressions
+.PP
+Named expressions are
+places where values are stored.
+Simply stated,
+named expressions are legal on the left
+side of an assignment.
+The value of a named expression is the value stored in the place named.
+.NH 4
+\fIidentifiers\fR
+.PP
+Simple identifiers are named expressions.
+They have an initial value of zero.
+.NH 4
+\fIarray-name\fP\|[\|\fIexpression\fP\|]
+.PP
+Array elements are named expressions.
+They have an initial value of zero.
+.NH 4
+\fBscale\fR, \fBibase\fR and \fBobase\fR
+.PP
+The internal registers
+\fBscale\fP, \fBibase\fP and \fBobase\fP are all named expressions.
+\fBscale\fP is the number of digits after the decimal point to be
+retained in arithmetic operations.
+\fBscale\fR has an initial value of zero.
+\fBibase\fP and \fBobase\fP are the input and output number
+radix respectively.
+Both \fBibase\fR and \fBobase\fR have initial values of 10.
+.NH 3
+Function calls
+.NH 4
+\fIfunction-name\fB\|(\fR[\fIexpression\fR\|[\fB,\|\fIexpression\|\fR.\|.\|.\|]\|]\fB)
+.PP
+A function call consists of a function name followed by parentheses
+containing a comma-separated list of
+expressions, which are the function arguments.
+A whole array passed as an argument is specified by the
+array name followed by empty square brackets.
+All function arguments are passed by
+value.
+As a result, changes made to the formal parameters have
+no effect on the actual arguments.
+If the function terminates by executing a return
+statement, the value of the function is
+the value of the expression in the parentheses of the return
+statement or is zero if no expression is provided
+or if there is no return statement.
+.NH 4
+sqrt\|(\|\fIexpression\fP\|)
+.PP
+The result is the square root of the expression.
+The result is truncated in the least significant decimal place.
+The scale of the result is
+the scale of the expression or the
+value of
+.ft B
+scale,
+.ft
+whichever is larger.
+.NH 4
+length\|(\|\fIexpression\fP\|)
+.PP
+The result is the total number of significant decimal digits in the expression.
+The scale of the result is zero.
+.NH 4
+scale\|(\|\fIexpression\fP\|)
+.PP
+The result is the scale of the expression.
+The scale of the result is zero.
+.NH 3
+Constants
+.PP
+Constants are primitive expressions.
+.NH 3
+Parentheses
+.PP
+An expression surrounded by parentheses is
+a primitive expression.
+The parentheses are used to alter the
+normal precedence.
+.NH 2
+Unary operators
+.PP
+The unary operators
+bind right to left.
+.NH 3
+\-\|\fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The result is the negative of the expression.
+.NH 3
+++\|\fInamed-expression\fP
+.PP
+The named expression is
+incremented by one.
+The result is the value of the named expression after
+incrementing.
+.NH 3
+\-\-\|\fInamed-expression\fP
+.PP
+The named expression is
+decremented by one.
+The result is the value of the named expression after
+decrementing.
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP\|++
+.PP
+The named expression is
+incremented by one.
+The result is the value of the named expression before
+incrementing.
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP\|\-\-
+.PP
+The named expression is
+decremented by one.
+The result is the value of the named expression before
+decrementing.
+.NH 2
+Exponentiation operator
+.PP
+The exponentiation operator binds right to left.
+.NH 3
+\fIexpression\fP ^ \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The result is the first
+expression raised to the power of the
+second expression.
+The second expression must be an integer.
+If \fIa\fP
+is the scale of the left expression
+and \fIb\fP is the absolute value
+of the right expression,
+then the scale of the result is:
+.PP
+min\|(\|\fIa\(mub\fP,\|max\|(\|\fBscale\fP,\|\fIa\fP\|)\|)
+.NH 2
+Multiplicative operators
+.PP
+The operators *, /, % bind left to right.
+.NH 3
+\fIexpression\fP * \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The result is the product
+of the two expressions.
+If \fIa\fP and \fIb\fP are the
+scales of the two expressions,
+then the scale of the result is:
+.PP
+min\|(\|\fIa+b\fP,\|max\|(\|\fBscale\fP,\|\fIa\fP,\|\fIb\fP\|)\|)
+.NH 3
+\fIexpression\fP / \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The result is the quotient of the two expressions.
+The scale of the result is the value of \fBscale\fR.
+.NH 3
+\fIexpression\fP % \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The % operator produces the remainder of the division
+of the two expressions.
+More precisely,
+\fIa\fP%\fIb\fP is \fIa\fP\-\fIa\fP/\fIb\fP*\fIb\fP.
+.PP
+The scale of the result is the sum of the scale of
+the divisor and the value of
+.ft B
+scale
+.ft
+.NH 2
+Additive operators
+.PP
+The additive operators bind left to right.
+.NH 3
+\fIexpression\fP + \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The result is the sum of the two expressions.
+The scale of the result is
+the maximun of the scales of the expressions.
+.NH 3
+\fIexpression\fP \- \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The result is the difference of the two expressions.
+The scale of the result is the
+maximum of the scales of the expressions.
+.NH 2
+assignment operators
+.PP
+The assignment operators bind right to left.
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP = \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+This expression results in assigning the value of the expression
+on the right
+to the named expression on the left.
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP =+ \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP =\- \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP =* \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP =/ \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP =% \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 3
+\fInamed-expression\fP =^ \fIexpression\fP
+.PP
+The result of the above expressions is equivalent
+to ``named expression = named expression OP expression'',
+where OP is the operator after the = sign.
+.NH 1
+Relations
+.PP
+Unlike all other operators, the relational operators
+are only valid as the object of an \fBif\fP, \fBwhile\fP,
+or inside a \fBfor\fP statement.
+.NH 2
+\fIexpression\fP < \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 2
+\fIexpression\fP > \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 2
+\fIexpression\fP <= \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 2
+\fIexpression\fP >= \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 2
+\fIexpression\fP == \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 2
+\fIexpression\fP != \fIexpression\fP
+.NH 1
+Storage classes
+.PP
+There are only two storage classes in BC, global and automatic
+(local).
+Only identifiers that are to be local to a function need be 
+declared with the \fBauto\fP command.
+The arguments to a function
+are local to the function.
+All other identifiers are assumed to be global
+and available to all functions.
+All identifiers, global and local, have initial values
+of zero.
+Identifiers declared as \fBauto\fP are allocated on entry to the function 
+and released on returning from the function.
+They therefore do not retain values between function calls.
+\fBauto\fP arrays are specified by the array name followed by empty square brackets.
+.PP
+Automatic variables in BC do not work in exactly the same way
+as in either C or PL/I.  On entry to a function, the old values of
+the names that appear as parameters and as automatic
+variables are pushed onto a stack.  
+Until return is made from the function, reference to these
+names refers only to the new values.
+.NH 1
+Statements
+.PP
+Statements must be separated by semicolon or newline.
+Except where altered by control statements, execution
+is sequential.
+.NH 2
+Expression statements
+.PP
+When a statement is an expression, unless
+the main operator is an assignment, the value
+of the expression is printed, followed by a newline character.
+.NH 2
+Compound statements
+.PP
+Statements may be grouped together and used when one statement is expected
+by surrounding them with { }.
+.NH 2
+Quoted string statements
+.PP
+"any string"
+.sp .5
+This statement prints the string inside the quotes.
+.NH 2
+If statements
+.sp .5
+\fBif\|(\|\fIrelation\fB\|)\|\fIstatement\fR
+.PP
+The substatement is executed if the relation is true.
+.NH 2
+While statements
+.sp .5
+\fBwhile\|(\|\fIrelation\fB\|)\|\fIstatement\fR
+.PP
+The statement is executed while the relation
+is true.
+The test occurs before each execution of the statement.
+.NH 2
+For statements
+.sp .5
+\fBfor\|(\|\fIexpression\fB; \fIrelation\fB; \fIexpression\fB\|)\|\fIstatement\fR
+.PP
+The for statement is the same as
+.nf
+.ft I
+	first-expression
+	\fBwhile\|(\fPrelation\|\fB) {\fP
+		statement
+		last-expression
+	}
+.ft R
+.fi
+.PP
+All three expressions must be present.
+.NH 2
+Break statements
+.sp .5
+\fBbreak\fP
+.PP
+\fBbreak\fP causes termination of a \fBfor\fP or \fBwhile\fP statement.
+.NH 2
+Auto statements
+.sp .5
+\fBauto \fIidentifier\fR\|[\|\fB,\fIidentifier\fR\|]
+.PP
+The auto statement causes the values of the identifiers to be pushed down.
+The identifiers can be ordinary identifiers or array identifiers.
+Array identifiers are specified by following the array name by empty square
+brackets.
+The auto statement must be the first statement
+in a function definition.
+.NH 2
+Define statements
+.sp .5
+.nf
+\fBdefine(\|\fR[\fIparameter\|\fR[\fB\|,\|\fIparameter\|.\|.\|.\|\fR]\|]\|\fB)\|{\fI
+	statements\|\fB}\fR
+.fi
+.PP
+The define statement defines a function.
+The parameters may
+be ordinary identifiers or array names.
+Array names must be followed by empty square brackets.
+.NH 2
+Return statements
+.sp .5
+\fBreturn\fP
+.sp .5
+\fBreturn(\fI\|expression\|\fB)\fR
+.PP
+The return statement causes termination of a function,
+popping of its auto variables, and
+specifies the result of the function.
+The first form is equivalent to \fBreturn(0)\fR.
+The result of the function is the result of the expression
+in parentheses.
+.NH 2
+Quit
+.PP
+The quit statement stops execution of a BC program and returns
+control to UNIX when it is first encountered.
+Because it is not treated as an executable statement,
+it cannot be used
+in a function definition or in an 
+.ft B
+if, for,
+.ft
+or
+.ft B
+while
+.ft
+statement.
diff --git a/usr/doc/cman b/usr/doc/cman
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..7c8fbf5ef9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/cman
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Sorry, but for copyright reasons, the source
+for the C Reference Manual is not distributed.
diff --git a/usr/doc/implement b/usr/doc/implement
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..e7f128e26a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/implement
@@ -0,0 +1,1231 @@
+.de P1
+.DS
+..
+.de P2
+.DE
+..
+.de UL
+.lg 0
+.if n .ul
+\%\&\\$3\f3\\$1\fR\&\\$2
+.lg
+..
+.de UC
+\&\\$3\s-1\\$1\\s0\&\\$2
+..
+.de IT
+.lg 0
+.if n .ul
+\%\&\\$3\f2\\$1\fR\&\\$2
+.lg
+..
+.de SP
+.sp \\$1
+..
+.hw device
+.TL
+UNIX Implementation
+.AU "MH 2C-523" 2394
+K. Thompson
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+This paper describes in high-level terms the
+implementation of the resident
+.UX
+kernel.
+This discussion is broken into three parts.
+The first part describes
+how the
+.UX
+system views processes, users, and programs.
+The second part describes the I/O system.
+The last part describes the
+.UX
+file system.
+.AE
+.NH
+INTRODUCTION
+.PP
+The
+.UX
+kernel consists of about 10,000
+lines of C code and about 1,000 lines of assembly code.
+The assembly code can be further broken down into
+200 lines included for
+the sake of efficiency
+(they could have been written in C)
+and 800 lines to perform hardware
+functions not possible in C.
+.PP
+This code represents 5 to 10 percent of what has
+been lumped into the broad expression
+``the
+.UX
+operating system.''
+The kernel is the only
+.UX
+code that
+cannot be substituted by a user to his
+own liking.
+For this reason,
+the kernel should make as few real
+decisions as possible.
+This does not mean to allow the user
+a million options to do the same thing.
+Rather, it means to allow only one way to
+do one thing,
+but have that way be the least-common divisor
+of all the options that might have been provided.
+.PP
+What is or is not implemented in the kernel
+represents both a great responsibility and a great power.
+It is a soap-box platform on
+``the way things should be done.''
+Even so, if
+``the way'' is too radical,
+no one will follow it.
+Every important decision was weighed
+carefully.
+Throughout,
+simplicity has been substituted for efficiency.
+Complex algorithms are used only if
+their complexity can be localized.
+.NH
+PROCESS CONTROL
+.PP
+In the
+.UX
+system,
+a user executes programs in an
+environment called a user process.
+When a system function is required,
+the user process calls the system
+as a subroutine.
+At some point in this call,
+there is a distinct switch of environments.
+After this,
+the process is said to be a system process.
+In the normal definition of processes,
+the user and system processes are different
+phases of the same process
+(they never execute simultaneously).
+For protection,
+each system process has its own stack.
+.PP
+The user process may execute
+from a read-only text segment,
+which is shared by all processes
+executing the same code.
+There is no
+.IT functional
+benefit
+from shared-text segments.
+An
+.IT efficiency
+benefit comes from the fact
+that there is no need to swap read-only
+segments out because the original
+copy on secondary memory is still current.
+This is a great benefit to interactive
+programs that tend to be swapped while
+waiting for terminal input.
+Furthermore,
+if two processes are
+executing
+simultaneously
+from the same copy of a read-only segment,
+only one copy needs to reside in
+primary memory.
+This is a secondary effect,
+because
+simultaneous execution of a program
+is not common.
+It is ironic that this effect,
+which reduces the use of primary memory,
+only comes into play when there is
+an overabundance of primary memory,
+that is,
+when there is enough memory
+to keep waiting processes loaded.
+.PP
+All current read-only text segments in the
+system are maintained from the
+.IT "text table" .
+A text table entry holds the location of the
+text segment on secondary memory.
+If the segment is loaded,
+that table also holds the primary memory location
+and the count of the number of processes
+sharing this entry.
+When this count is reduced to zero,
+the entry is freed along with any
+primary and secondary memory holding the segment.
+When a process first executes a shared-text segment,
+a text table entry is allocated and the
+segment is loaded onto secondary memory.
+If a second process executes a text segment
+that is already allocated,
+the entry reference count is simply incremented.
+.PP
+A user process has some strictly private
+read-write data
+contained in its
+data segment.
+As far as possible,
+the system does not use the user's
+data segment to hold system data.
+In particular,
+there are no I/O buffers in the
+user address space.
+.PP
+The user data segment has two growing boundaries.
+One, increased automatically by the system
+as a result of memory faults,
+is used for a stack.
+The second boundary is only grown (or shrunk) by
+explicit requests.
+The contents of newly allocated primary memory
+is initialized to zero.
+.PP
+Also associated and swapped with
+a process is a small fixed-size
+system data segment.
+This segment contains all
+the data about the process
+that the system needs only when the
+process is active.
+Examples of the kind of data contained
+in the system data segment are:
+saved central processor registers,
+open file descriptors,
+accounting information,
+scratch data area,
+and the stack for the system phase
+of the process.
+The system data segment is not
+addressable from the user process
+and is therefore protected.
+.PP
+Last,
+there is a process table with
+one entry per process.
+This entry contains all the data
+needed by the system when the process
+is
+.IT not
+active.
+Examples are
+the process's name,
+the location of the other segments,
+and scheduling information.
+The process table entry is allocated
+when the process is created, and freed
+when the process terminates.
+This process entry is always directly
+addressable by the kernel.
+.PP
+Figure 1 shows the relationships
+between the various process control
+data.
+In a sense,
+the process table is the
+definition of all processes,
+because
+all the data associated with a process
+may be accessed
+starting from the process table entry.
+.KS
+.sp 2.44i
+.sp 2v
+.ce
+Fig. 1\(emProcess control data structure.
+.KE
+.NH 2
+Process creation and program execution
+.PP
+Processes are created by the system primitive
+.UL fork .
+The newly created process (child) is a copy of the original process (parent).
+There is no detectable sharing of primary memory between the two processes.
+(Of course,
+if the parent process was executing from a read-only
+text segment,
+the child will share the text segment.)
+Copies of all writable data segments
+are made for the child process.
+Files that were open before the
+.UL fork
+are
+truly shared after the
+.UL fork .
+The processes are informed as to their part in the
+relationship to
+allow them to select their own
+(usually non-identical)
+destiny.
+The parent may
+.UL wait
+for the termination of
+any of its children.
+.PP
+A process may
+.UL exec
+a file.
+This consists of exchanging the current text and data
+segments of the process for new text and data
+segments specified in the file.
+The old segments are lost.
+Doing an
+.UL exec
+does
+.IT not
+change processes;
+the process that did the
+.UL exec
+persists,
+but
+after the
+.UL exec
+it is executing a different program.
+Files that were open
+before the
+.UL exec
+remain open after the
+.UL exec .
+.PP
+If a program,
+say the first pass of a compiler,
+wishes to overlay itself with another program,
+say the second pass,
+then it simply
+.UL exec s
+the second program.
+This is analogous
+to a ``goto.''
+If a program wishes to regain control
+after
+.UL exec ing
+a second program,
+it should
+.UL fork
+a child process,
+have the child
+.UL exec
+the second program, and
+have the parent
+.UL wait
+for the child.
+This is analogous to a ``call.''
+Breaking up the call into a binding followed by
+a transfer is similar to the subroutine linkage in
+SL-5.
+.[
+griswold hanson sl5 overview
+.]
+.NH 2
+Swapping
+.PP
+The major data associated with a process
+(the user data segment,
+the system data segment, and
+the text segment)
+are swapped to and from secondary
+memory, as needed.
+The user data segment and the system data segment
+are kept in contiguous primary memory to reduce
+swapping latency.
+(When low-latency devices, such as bubbles,
+.UC CCD s,
+or scatter/gather devices,
+are used,
+this decision will have to be reconsidered.)
+Allocation of both primary
+and secondary memory is performed
+by the same simple first-fit algorithm.
+When a process grows,
+a new piece of primary memory is allocated.
+The contents of the old memory is copied to the new memory.
+The old memory is freed
+and the tables are updated.
+If there is not enough primary memory,
+secondary memory is allocated instead.
+The process is swapped out onto the
+secondary memory,
+ready to be swapped in with
+its new size.
+.PP
+One separate process in the kernel,
+the swapping process,
+simply swaps the other
+processes in and out of primary memory.
+It examines the
+process table looking for a process
+that is swapped out and is
+ready to run.
+It allocates primary memory for that
+process and
+reads its segments into
+primary memory, where that process competes for the
+central processor with other loaded processes.
+If no primary memory is available,
+the swapping process makes memory available
+by examining the process table for processes
+that can be swapped out.
+It selects a process to swap out,
+writes it to secondary memory,
+frees the primary memory,
+and then goes back to look for a process
+to swap in.
+.PP
+Thus there are two specific algorithms
+to the swapping process.
+Which of the possibly many processes that
+are swapped out is to be swapped in?
+This is decided by secondary storage residence
+time.
+The one with the longest time out is swapped in first.
+There is a slight penalty for larger processes.
+Which of the possibly many processes that
+are loaded is to be swapped out?
+Processes that are waiting for slow events
+(i.e., not currently running or waiting for
+disk I/O)
+are picked first,
+by age in primary memory,
+again with size penalties.
+The other processes are examined
+by the same age algorithm,
+but are not taken out unless they are
+at least of some age.
+This adds
+hysteresis to the swapping and
+prevents total thrashing.
+.PP
+These swapping algorithms are the
+most suspect in the system.
+With limited primary memory,
+these algorithms cause total swapping.
+This is not bad in itself, because
+the swapping does not impact the
+execution of the resident processes.
+However, if the swapping device must
+also be used for file storage,
+the swapping traffic severely
+impacts the file system traffic.
+It is exactly these small systems
+that tend to double usage of limited disk
+resources.
+.NH 2
+Synchronization and scheduling
+.PP
+Process synchronization is accomplished by having processes
+wait for events.
+Events are represented by arbitrary integers.
+By convention,
+events are chosen to be addresses of
+tables associated with those events.
+For example, a process that is waiting for
+any of its children to terminate will wait
+for an event that is the address of
+its own process table entry.
+When a process terminates,
+it signals the event represented by
+its parent's process table entry.
+Signaling an event on which no process
+is waiting has no effect.
+Similarly,
+signaling an event on which many processes
+are waiting will wake all of them up.
+This differs considerably from
+Dijkstra's P and V
+synchronization operations,
+.[
+dijkstra sequential processes 1968
+.]
+in that
+no memory is associated with events.
+Thus there need be no allocation of events
+prior to their use.
+Events exist simply by being used.
+.PP
+On the negative side,
+because there is no memory associated with events,
+no notion of ``how much''
+can be signaled via the event mechanism.
+For example,
+processes that want memory might
+wait on an event associated with
+memory allocation.
+When any amount of memory becomes available,
+the event would be signaled.
+All the competing processes would then wake
+up to fight over the new memory.
+(In reality,
+the swapping process is the only process
+that waits for primary memory to become available.)
+.PP
+If an event occurs
+between the time a process decides
+to wait for that event and the
+time that process enters the wait state,
+then
+the process will wait on an event that has
+already happened (and may never happen again).
+This race condition happens because there is no memory associated with
+the event to indicate that the event has occurred;
+the only action of an event is to change a set of processes
+from wait state to run state.
+This problem is relieved largely
+by the fact that process switching can
+only occur in the kernel by explicit calls
+to the event-wait mechanism.
+If the event in question is signaled by another
+process,
+then there is no problem.
+But if the event is signaled by a hardware
+interrupt,
+then special care must be taken.
+These synchronization races pose the biggest
+problem when
+.UX
+is adapted to multiple-processor configurations.
+.[
+hawley meyer multiprocessing unix
+.]
+.PP
+The event-wait code in the kernel
+is like a co-routine linkage.
+At any time,
+all but one of the processes has called event-wait.
+The remaining process is the one currently executing.
+When it calls event-wait,
+a process whose event has been signaled
+is selected and that process
+returns from its call to event-wait.
+.PP
+Which of the runable processes is to run next?
+Associated with each process is a priority.
+The priority of a system process is assigned by the code
+issuing the wait on an event.
+This is roughly equivalent to the response
+that one would expect on such an event.
+Disk events have high priority,
+teletype events are low,
+and time-of-day events are very low.
+(From observation,
+the difference in system process priorities
+has little or no performance impact.)
+All user-process priorities are lower than the
+lowest system priority.
+User-process priorities are assigned
+by an algorithm based on the
+recent ratio of the amount of compute time to real time consumed
+by the process.
+A process that has used a lot of
+compute time in the last real-time
+unit is assigned a low user priority.
+Because interactive processes are characterized
+by low ratios of compute to real time,
+interactive response is maintained without any
+special arrangements.
+.PP
+The scheduling algorithm simply picks
+the process with the highest priority,
+thus
+picking all system processes first and
+user processes second.
+The compute-to-real-time ratio is updated
+every second.
+Thus,
+all other things being equal,
+looping user processes will be
+scheduled round-robin with a
+1-second quantum.
+A high-priority process waking up will
+preempt a running, low-priority process.
+The scheduling algorithm has a very desirable
+negative feedback character.
+If a process uses its high priority
+to hog the computer,
+its priority will drop.
+At the same time, if a low-priority
+process is ignored for a long time,
+its priority will rise.
+.NH
+I/O SYSTEM
+.PP
+The I/O system
+is broken into two completely separate systems:
+the block I/O system and the character I/O system.
+In retrospect,
+the names should have been ``structured I/O''
+and ``unstructured I/O,'' respectively;
+while the term ``block I/O'' has some meaning,
+``character I/O'' is a complete misnomer.
+.PP
+Devices are characterized by a major device number,
+a minor device number, and
+a class (block or character).
+For each class,
+there is an array of entry points into the device drivers.
+The major device number is used to index the array
+when calling the code for a particular device driver.
+The minor device number is passed to the
+device driver as an argument.
+The minor number has no significance other
+than that attributed to it by the driver.
+Usually,
+the driver uses the minor number to access
+one of several identical physical devices.
+.PP
+The use of the array of entry points
+(configuration table)
+as the only connection between the
+system code and the device drivers is
+very important.
+Early versions of the system had a much
+less formal connection with the drivers,
+so that it was extremely hard to handcraft
+differently configured systems.
+Now it is possible to create new
+device drivers in an average of a few hours.
+The configuration table in most cases
+is created automatically by a program
+that reads the system's parts list.
+.NH 2
+Block I/O system
+.PP
+The model block I/O device consists
+of randomly addressed, secondary
+memory blocks of 512 bytes each.
+The blocks are uniformly addressed
+0, 1, .\|.\|. up to the size of the device.
+The block device driver has the job of
+emulating this model on a
+physical device.
+.PP
+The block I/O devices are accessed
+through a layer of buffering software.
+The system maintains a list of buffers
+(typically between 10 and 70)
+each assigned a device name and
+a device address.
+This buffer pool constitutes a data cache
+for the block devices.
+On a read request,
+the cache is searched for the desired block.
+If the block is found,
+the data are made available to the
+requester without any physical I/O.
+If the block is not in the cache,
+the least recently used block in the cache is renamed,
+the correct device driver is called to
+fill up the renamed buffer, and then the
+data are made available.
+Write requests are handled in an analogous manner.
+The correct buffer is found
+and relabeled if necessary.
+The write is performed simply by marking
+the buffer as ``dirty.''
+The physical I/O is then deferred until
+the buffer is renamed.
+.PP
+The benefits in reduction of physical I/O
+of this scheme are substantial,
+especially considering the file system implementation.
+There are,
+however,
+some drawbacks.
+The asynchronous nature of the
+algorithm makes error reporting
+and meaningful user error handling
+almost impossible.
+The cavalier approach to I/O error
+handling in the
+.UX
+system is partly due to the asynchronous
+nature of the block I/O system.
+A second problem is in the delayed writes.
+If the system stops unexpectedly,
+it is almost certain that there is a
+lot of logically complete,
+but physically incomplete,
+I/O in the buffers.
+There is a system primitive to
+flush all outstanding I/O activity
+from the buffers.
+Periodic use of this primitive helps,
+but does not solve, the problem.
+Finally,
+the associativity in the buffers
+can alter the physical I/O sequence
+from that of the logical I/O sequence.
+This means that there are times
+when data structures on disk are inconsistent,
+even though the software is careful
+to perform I/O in the correct order.
+On non-random devices,
+notably magnetic tape,
+the inversions of writes can be disastrous.
+The problem with magnetic tapes is ``cured'' by
+allowing only one outstanding write request
+per drive.
+.NH 2
+Character I/O system
+.PP
+The character I/O system consists of all
+devices that do not fall into the block I/O model.
+This includes the ``classical'' character devices
+such as communications lines, paper tape, and
+line printers.
+It also includes magnetic tape and disks when
+they are not used in a stereotyped way,
+for example, 80-byte physical records on tape
+and track-at-a-time disk copies.
+In short,
+the character I/O interface
+means ``everything other than block.''
+I/O requests from the user are sent to the
+device driver essentially unaltered.
+The implementation of these requests is, of course,
+up to the device driver.
+There are guidelines and conventions
+to help the implementation of
+certain types of device drivers.
+.NH 3
+Disk drivers
+.PP
+Disk drivers are implemented
+with a queue of transaction records.
+Each record holds a read/write flag,
+a primary memory address,
+a secondary memory address, and
+a transfer byte count.
+Swapping is accomplished by passing
+such a record to the swapping device driver.
+The block I/O interface is implemented by
+passing such records with requests to
+fill and empty system buffers.
+The character I/O interface to the disk
+drivers create a transaction record that
+points directly into the user area.
+The routine that creates this record also insures
+that the user is not swapped during this
+I/O transaction.
+Thus by implementing the general disk driver,
+it is possible to use the disk
+as a block device,
+a character device, and a swap device.
+The only really disk-specific code in normal
+disk drivers is the pre-sort of transactions to
+minimize latency for a particular device, and
+the actual issuing of the I/O request.
+.NH 3
+Character lists
+.PP
+Real character-oriented devices may
+be implemented using the common
+code to handle character lists.
+A character list is a queue of characters.
+One routine puts a character on a queue.
+Another gets a character from a queue.
+It is also possible to ask how many
+characters are currently on a queue.
+Storage for all queues in the system comes
+from a single common pool.
+Putting a character on a queue will allocate
+space from the common pool and link the
+character onto the data structure defining the queue.
+Getting a character from a queue returns
+the corresponding space to the pool.
+.PP
+A typical character-output device
+(paper tape punch, for example)
+is implemented by passing characters
+from the user onto a character queue until
+some maximum number of characters is on the queue.
+The I/O is prodded to start as
+soon as there is anything on the queue
+and, once started,
+it is sustained by hardware completion interrupts.
+Each time there is a completion interrupt,
+the driver gets the next character from the queue
+and sends it to the hardware.
+The number of characters on the queue is checked and,
+as the count falls through some intermediate level,
+an event (the queue address) is signaled.
+The process that is passing characters from
+the user to the queue can be waiting on the event, and
+refill the queue to its maximum
+when the event occurs.
+.PP
+A typical character input device
+(for example, a paper tape reader)
+is handled in a very similar manner.
+.PP
+Another class of character devices is the terminals.
+A terminal is represented by three
+character queues.
+There are two input queues (raw and canonical)
+and an output queue.
+Characters going to the output of a terminal
+are handled by common code exactly as described
+above.
+The main difference is that there is also code
+to interpret the output stream as
+.UC  ASCII
+characters and to perform some translations,
+e.g., escapes for deficient terminals.
+Another common aspect of terminals is code
+to insert real-time delay after certain control characters.
+.PP
+Input on terminals is a little different.
+Characters are collected from the terminal and
+placed on a raw input queue.
+Some device-dependent code conversion and
+escape interpretation is handled here.
+When a line is complete in the raw queue,
+an event is signaled.
+The code catching this signal then copies a
+line from the raw queue to a canonical queue
+performing the character erase and line kill editing.
+User read requests on terminals can be
+directed at either the raw or canonical queues.
+.NH 3
+Other character devices
+.PP
+Finally,
+there are devices that fit no general category.
+These devices are set up as character I/O drivers.
+An example is a driver that reads and writes
+unmapped primary memory as an I/O device.
+Some devices are too
+fast to be treated a character at time,
+but do not fit the disk I/O mold.
+Examples are fast communications lines and
+fast line printers.
+These devices either have their own buffers
+or ``borrow'' block I/O buffers for a while and
+then give them back.
+.NH
+THE FILE SYSTEM
+.PP
+In the
+.UX
+system,
+a file is a (one-dimensional) array of bytes.
+No other structure of files is implied by the
+system.
+Files are attached anywhere
+(and possibly multiply)
+onto a hierarchy of directories.
+Directories are simply files that
+users cannot write.
+For a further discussion
+of the external view of files and directories,
+see Ref.\0
+.[
+ritchie thompson unix bstj 1978
+%Q This issue
+.].
+.PP
+The
+.UX
+file system is a disk data structure
+accessed completely through
+the block I/O system.
+As stated before,
+the canonical view of a ``disk'' is
+a randomly addressable array of
+512-byte blocks.
+A file system breaks the disk into
+four self-identifying regions.
+The first block (address 0)
+is unused by the file system.
+It is left aside for booting procedures.
+The second block (address 1)
+contains the so-called ``super-block.''
+This block,
+among other things,
+contains the size of the disk and
+the boundaries of the other regions.
+Next comes the i-list,
+a list of file definitions.
+Each file definition is
+a 64-byte structure, called an i-node.
+The offset of a particular i-node
+within the i-list is called its i-number.
+The combination of device name
+(major and minor numbers) and i-number
+serves to uniquely name a particular file.
+After the i-list,
+and to the end of the disk,
+come free storage blocks that
+are available for the contents of files.
+.PP
+The free space on a disk is maintained
+by a linked list of available disk blocks.
+Every block in this chain contains a disk address
+of the next block in the chain.
+The remaining space contains the address of up to
+50 disk blocks that are also free.
+Thus with one I/O operation,
+the system obtains 50 free blocks and a
+pointer where to find more.
+The disk allocation algorithms are
+very straightforward.
+Since all allocation is in fixed-size
+blocks and there is strict accounting of
+space,
+there is no need to compact or garbage collect.
+However,
+as disk space becomes dispersed,
+latency gradually increases.
+Some installations choose to occasionally compact
+disk space to reduce latency.
+.PP
+An i-node contains 13 disk addresses.
+The first 10 of these addresses point directly at
+the first 10 blocks of a file.
+If a file is larger than 10 blocks (5,120 bytes),
+then the eleventh address points at a block
+that contains the addresses of the next 128 blocks of the file.
+If the file is still larger than this
+(70,656 bytes),
+then the twelfth block points at up to 128 blocks,
+each pointing to 128 blocks of the file.
+Files yet larger
+(8,459,264 bytes)
+use the thirteenth address for a ``triple indirect'' address.
+The algorithm ends here with the maximum file size
+of 1,082,201,087 bytes.
+.PP
+A logical directory hierarchy is added
+to this flat physical structure simply
+by adding a new type of file, the directory.
+A directory is accessed exactly as an ordinary file.
+It contains 16-byte entries consisting of
+a 14-byte name and an i-number.
+The root of the hierarchy is at a known i-number
+(\fIviz.,\fR 2).
+The file system structure allows an arbitrary, directed graph
+of directories with regular files linked in
+at arbitrary places in this graph.
+In fact,
+very early
+.UX
+systems used such a structure.
+Administration of such a structure became so
+chaotic that later systems were restricted
+to a directory tree.
+Even now,
+with regular files linked multiply
+into arbitrary places in the tree,
+accounting for space has become a problem.
+It may become necessary to restrict the entire
+structure to a tree,
+and allow a new form of linking that
+is subservient to the tree structure.
+.PP
+The file system allows
+easy creation,
+easy removal,
+easy random accessing,
+and very easy space allocation.
+With most physical addresses confined
+to a small contiguous section of disk,
+it is also easy to dump, restore, and
+check the consistency of the file system.
+Large files suffer from indirect addressing,
+but the cache prevents most of the implied physical I/O
+without adding much execution.
+The space overhead properties of this scheme are quite good.
+For example,
+on one particular file system,
+there are 25,000 files containing 130M bytes of data-file content.
+The overhead (i-node, indirect blocks, and last block breakage)
+is about 11.5M bytes.
+The directory structure to support these files
+has about 1,500 directories containing 0.6M bytes of directory content
+and about 0.5M bytes of overhead in accessing the directories.
+Added up any way,
+this comes out to less than a 10 percent overhead for actual
+stored data.
+Most systems have this much overhead in
+padded trailing blanks alone.
+.NH 2
+File system implementation
+.PP
+Because the i-node defines a file,
+the implementation of the file system centers
+around access to the i-node.
+The system maintains a table of all active
+i-nodes.
+As a new file is accessed,
+the system locates the corresponding i-node,
+allocates an i-node table entry, and reads
+the i-node into primary memory.
+As in the buffer cache,
+the table entry is considered to be the current
+version of the i-node.
+Modifications to the i-node are made to
+the table entry.
+When the last access to the i-node goes
+away,
+the table entry is copied back to the
+secondary store i-list and the table entry is freed.
+.PP
+All I/O operations on files are carried out
+with the aid of the corresponding i-node table entry.
+The accessing of a file is a straightforward
+implementation of the algorithms mentioned previously.
+The user is not aware of i-nodes and i-numbers.
+References to the file system are made in terms of
+path names of the directory tree.
+Converting a path name into an i-node table entry
+is also straightforward.
+Starting at some known i-node
+(the root or the current directory of some process),
+the next component of the path name is
+searched by reading the directory.
+This gives an i-number and an implied device
+(that of the directory).
+Thus the next i-node table entry can be accessed.
+If that was the last component of the path name,
+then this i-node is the result.
+If not,
+this i-node is the directory needed to look up
+the next component of the path name, and the
+algorithm is repeated.
+.PP
+The user process accesses the file system with
+certain primitives.
+The most common of these are
+.UL open ,
+.UL create ,
+.UL read ,
+.UL write ,
+.UL seek ,
+and
+.UL close .
+The data structures maintained are shown in Fig. 2.
+.KS
+.sp 22P
+.ce
+Fig. 2\(emFile system data structure.
+.KE
+In the system data segment associated with a user,
+there is room for some (usually between 10 and 50) open files.
+This open file table consists of pointers that can be used to access
+corresponding i-node table entries.
+Associated with each of these open files is
+a current I/O pointer.
+This is a byte offset of
+the next read/write operation on the file.
+The system treats each read/write request
+as random with an implied seek to the
+I/O pointer.
+The user usually thinks of the file as
+sequential with the I/O pointer
+automatically counting the number of bytes
+that have been read/written from the file.
+The user may,
+of course,
+perform random I/O by setting the I/O pointer
+before reads/writes.
+.PP
+With file sharing,
+it is necessary to allow related
+processes to share a common I/O pointer
+and yet have separate I/O pointers
+for independent processes
+that access the same file.
+With these two conditions,
+the I/O pointer cannot reside
+in the i-node table nor can
+it reside in the list of
+open files for the process.
+A new table
+(the open file table)
+was invented for the sole purpose
+of holding the I/O pointer.
+Processes that share the same open
+file
+(the result of
+.UL fork s)
+share a common open file table entry.
+A separate open of the same file will
+only share the i-node table entry,
+but will have distinct open file table entries.
+.PP
+The main file system primitives are implemented as follows.
+.UL \&open
+converts a file system path name into an i-node
+table entry.
+A pointer to the i-node table entry is placed in a
+newly created open file table entry.
+A pointer to the file table entry is placed in the
+system data segment for the process.
+.UL \&create
+first creates a new i-node entry,
+writes the i-number into a directory, and
+then builds the same structure as for an
+.UL open .
+.UL \&read
+and
+.UL write
+just access the i-node entry as described above.
+.UL \&seek
+simply manipulates the I/O pointer.
+No physical seeking is done.
+.UL \&close
+just frees the structures built by
+.UL open
+and
+.UL create .
+Reference counts are kept on the open file table entries and
+the i-node table entries to free these structures after
+the last reference goes away.
+.UL \&unlink
+simply decrements the count of the
+number of directories pointing at the given i-node.
+When the last reference to an i-node table entry
+goes away,
+if the i-node has no directories pointing to it,
+then the file is removed and the i-node is freed.
+This delayed removal of files prevents
+problems arising from removing active files.
+A file may be removed while still open.
+The resulting unnamed file vanishes
+when the file is closed.
+This is a method of obtaining temporary files.
+.PP
+There is a type of unnamed
+.UC  FIFO
+file called a
+.UL pipe.
+Implementation of
+.UL pipe s
+consists of implied
+.UL seek s
+before each
+.UL read
+or
+.UL write
+in order to implement
+first-in-first-out.
+There are also checks and synchronization
+to prevent the
+writer from grossly outproducing the
+reader and to prevent the reader from
+overtaking the writer.
+.NH 2
+Mounted file systems
+.PP
+The file system of a
+.UX
+system
+starts with some designated block device
+formatted as described above to contain
+a hierarchy.
+The root of this structure is the root of
+the
+.UX
+file system.
+A second formatted block device may be
+mounted
+at any leaf of
+the current hierarchy.
+This logically extends the current hierarchy.
+The implementation of
+mounting
+is trivial.
+A mount table is maintained containing
+pairs of designated leaf i-nodes and
+block devices.
+When converting a path name into an i-node,
+a check is made to see if the new i-node is a
+designated leaf.
+If it is,
+the i-node of the root
+of the block device replaces it.
+.PP
+Allocation of space for a file is taken
+from the free pool on the device on which the
+file lives.
+Thus a file system consisting of many
+mounted devices does not have a common pool of
+free secondary storage space.
+This separation of space on different
+devices is necessary to allow easy
+unmounting
+of a device.
+.NH 2
+Other system functions
+.PP
+There are some other things that the system
+does for the user\-a
+little accounting,
+a little tracing/debugging,
+and a little access protection.
+Most of these things are not very
+well developed
+because our use of the system in computing science research
+does not need them.
+There are some features that are missed in some
+applications, for example, better inter-process communication.
+.PP
+The
+.UX
+kernel is an I/O multiplexer more than
+a complete operating system.
+This is as it should be.
+Because of this outlook,
+many features are
+found in most
+other operating systems that are missing from the
+.UX
+kernel.
+For example,
+the
+.UX
+kernel does not support
+file access methods,
+file disposition,
+file formats,
+file maximum size,
+spooling,
+command language,
+logical records,
+physical records,
+assignment of logical file names,
+logical file names,
+more than one character set,
+an operator's console,
+an operator,
+log-in,
+or log-out.
+Many of these things are symptoms rather than features.
+Many of these things are implemented
+in user software
+using the kernel as a tool.
+A good example of this is the command language.
+.[
+bourne shell 1978 bstj
+%Q This issue
+.]
+Each user may have his own command language.
+Maintenance of such code is as easy as
+maintaining user code.
+The idea of implementing ``system'' code with general
+user primitives
+comes directly from
+.UC  MULTICS .
+.[
+organick multics 1972
+.]
+.LP
+.[
+$LIST$
+.]
diff --git a/usr/doc/iosys b/usr/doc/iosys
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..512d30b8f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/iosys
@@ -0,0 +1,1044 @@
+.TL
+The UNIX I/O System
+.AU
+Dennis M. Ritchie
+.AI
+.MH
+.PP
+This paper gives an overview of the workings of the UNIX\(dg
+.FS
+\(dgUNIX is a Trademark of Bell Laboratories.
+.FE
+I/O system.
+It was written with an eye toward providing
+guidance to writers of device driver routines,
+and is oriented more toward describing the environment
+and nature of device drivers than the implementation
+of that part of the file system which deals with
+ordinary files.
+.PP
+It is assumed that the reader has a good knowledge
+of the overall structure of the file system as discussed
+in the paper ``The UNIX Time-sharing System.''
+A more detailed discussion
+appears in
+``UNIX Implementation;''
+the current document restates parts of that one,
+but is still more detailed.
+It is most useful in
+conjunction with a copy of the system code,
+since it is basically an exegesis of that code.
+.SH
+Device Classes
+.PP
+There are two classes of device:
+.I block
+and
+.I character.
+The block interface is suitable for devices
+like disks, tapes, and DECtape
+which work, or can work, with addressible 512-byte blocks.
+Ordinary magnetic tape just barely fits in this category,
+since by use of forward
+and
+backward spacing any block can be read, even though
+blocks can be written only at the end of the tape.
+Block devices can at least potentially contain a mounted
+file system.
+The interface to block devices is very highly structured;
+the drivers for these devices share a great many routines
+as well as a pool of buffers.
+.PP
+Character-type devices have a much
+more straightforward interface, although
+more work must be done by the driver itself.
+.PP
+Devices of both types are named by a
+.I major
+and a
+.I minor
+device number.
+These numbers are generally stored as an integer
+with the minor device number
+in the low-order 8 bits and the major device number
+in the next-higher 8 bits;
+macros
+.I major
+and
+.I minor
+are available to access these numbers.
+The major device number selects which driver will deal with
+the device; the minor device number is not used
+by the rest of the system but is passed to the
+driver at appropriate times.
+Typically the minor number
+selects a subdevice attached to
+a given controller, or one of
+several similar hardware interfaces.
+.PP
+The major device numbers for block and character devices
+are used as indices in separate tables;
+they both start at 0 and therefore overlap.
+.SH
+Overview of I/O
+.PP
+The purpose of
+the
+.I open
+and
+.I creat
+system calls is to set up entries in three separate
+system tables.
+The first of these is the
+.I u_ofile
+table,
+which is stored in the system's per-process
+data area
+.I u.
+This table is indexed by
+the file descriptor returned by the
+.I open
+or
+.I creat,
+and is accessed during
+a
+.I read,
+.I write,
+or other operation on the open file.
+An entry contains only
+a pointer to the corresponding
+entry of the
+.I file
+table,
+which is a per-system data base.
+There is one entry in the
+.I file
+table for each
+instance of
+.I open
+or
+.I creat.
+This table is per-system because the same instance
+of an open file must be shared among the several processes
+which can result from
+.I forks
+after the file is opened.
+A
+.I file
+table entry contains
+flags which indicate whether the file
+was open for reading or writing or is a pipe, and
+a count which is used to decide when all processes
+using the entry have terminated or closed the file
+(so the entry can be abandoned).
+There is also a 32-bit file offset
+which is used to indicate where in the file the next read
+or write will take place.
+Finally, there is a pointer to the
+entry for the file in the
+.I inode
+table,
+which contains a copy of the file's i-node.
+.PP
+Certain open files can be designated ``multiplexed''
+files, and several other flags apply to such
+channels.
+In such a case, instead of an offset,
+there is a pointer to an associated multiplex channel table.
+Multiplex channels will not be discussed here.
+.PP
+An entry in the
+.I file
+table corresponds precisely to an instance of
+.I open
+or
+.I creat;
+if the same file is opened several times,
+it will have several
+entries in this table.
+However,
+there is at most one entry
+in the
+.I inode
+table for a given file.
+Also, a file may enter the
+.I inode
+table not only because it is open,
+but also because it is the current directory
+of some process or because it
+is a special file containing a currently-mounted
+file system.
+.PP
+An entry in the
+.I inode
+table differs somewhat from the
+corresponding i-node as stored on the disk;
+the modified and accessed times are not stored,
+and the entry is augmented
+by a flag word containing information about the entry,
+a count used to determine when it may be
+allowed to disappear,
+and the device and i-number
+whence the entry came.
+Also, the several block numbers that give addressing
+information for the file are expanded from
+the 3-byte, compressed format used on the disk to full
+.I long
+quantities.
+.PP
+During the processing of an
+.I open
+or
+.I creat
+call for a special file,
+the system always calls the device's
+.I open
+routine to allow for any special processing
+required (rewinding a tape, turning on
+the data-terminal-ready lead of a modem, etc.).
+However,
+the
+.I close
+routine is called only when the last
+process closes a file,
+that is, when the i-node table entry
+is being deallocated.
+Thus it is not feasible
+for a device to maintain, or depend on,
+a count of its users, although it is quite
+possible to
+implement an exclusive-use device which cannot
+be reopened until it has been closed.
+.PP
+When a
+.I read
+or
+.I write
+takes place,
+the user's arguments
+and the
+.I file
+table entry are used to set up the
+variables
+.I u.u_base,
+.I u.u_count,
+and
+.I u.u_offset
+which respectively contain the (user) address
+of the I/O target area, the byte-count for the transfer,
+and the current location in the file.
+If the file referred to is
+a character-type special file, the appropriate read
+or write routine is called; it is responsible
+for transferring data and updating the
+count and current location appropriately
+as discussed below.
+Otherwise, the current location is used to calculate
+a logical block number in the file.
+If the file is an ordinary file the logical block
+number must be mapped (possibly using indirect blocks)
+to a physical block number; a block-type
+special file need not be mapped.
+This mapping is performed by the
+.I bmap
+routine.
+In any event, the resulting physical block number
+is used, as discussed below, to
+read or write the appropriate device.
+.SH
+Character Device Drivers
+.PP
+The
+.I cdevsw
+table specifies the interface routines present for
+character devices.
+Each device provides five routines:
+open, close, read, write, and special-function
+(to implement the
+.I ioctl
+system call).
+Any of these may be missing.
+If a call on the routine
+should be ignored,
+(e.g.
+.I open
+on non-exclusive devices that require no setup)
+the
+.I cdevsw
+entry can be given as
+.I nulldev;
+if it should be considered an error,
+(e.g.
+.I write
+on read-only devices)
+.I nodev
+is used.
+For terminals,
+the
+.I cdevsw
+structure also contains a pointer to the
+.I tty
+structure associated with the terminal.
+.PP
+The
+.I open
+routine is called each time the file
+is opened with the full device number as argument.
+The second argument is a flag which is
+non-zero only if the device is to be written upon.
+.PP
+The
+.I close
+routine is called only when the file
+is closed for the last time,
+that is when the very last process in
+which the file is open closes it.
+This means it is not possible for the driver to
+maintain its own count of its users.
+The first argument is the device number;
+the second is a flag which is non-zero
+if the file was open for writing in the process which
+performs the final
+.I close.
+.PP
+When
+.I write
+is called, it is supplied the device
+as argument.
+The per-user variable
+.I u.u_count
+has been set to
+the number of characters indicated by the user;
+for character devices, this number may be 0
+initially.
+.I u.u_base
+is the address supplied by the user from which to start
+taking characters.
+The system may call the
+routine internally, so the
+flag
+.I u.u_segflg
+is supplied that indicates,
+if
+.I on,
+that
+.I u.u_base
+refers to the system address space instead of
+the user's.
+.PP
+The
+.I write
+routine
+should copy up to
+.I u.u_count
+characters from the user's buffer to the device,
+decrementing
+.I u.u_count
+for each character passed.
+For most drivers, which work one character at a time,
+the routine
+.I "cpass( )"
+is used to pick up characters
+from the user's buffer.
+Successive calls on it return
+the characters to be written until
+.I u.u_count
+goes to 0 or an error occurs,
+when it returns \(mi1.
+.I Cpass
+takes care of interrogating
+.I u.u_segflg
+and updating
+.I u.u_count.
+.PP
+Write routines which want to transfer
+a probably large number of characters into an internal
+buffer may also use the routine
+.I "iomove(buffer, offset, count, flag)"
+which is faster when many characters must be moved.
+.I Iomove
+transfers up to
+.I count
+characters into the
+.I buffer
+starting
+.I offset
+bytes from the start of the buffer;
+.I flag
+should be
+.I B_WRITE
+(which is 0) in the write case.
+Caution:
+the caller is responsible for making sure
+the count is not too large and is non-zero.
+As an efficiency note,
+.I iomove
+is much slower if any of
+.I "buffer+offset, count"
+or
+.I u.u_base
+is odd.
+.PP
+The device's
+.I read
+routine is called under conditions similar to
+.I write,
+except that
+.I u.u_count
+is guaranteed to be non-zero.
+To return characters to the user, the routine
+.I "passc(c)"
+is available; it takes care of housekeeping
+like
+.I cpass
+and returns \(mi1 as the last character
+specified by
+.I u.u_count
+is returned to the user;
+before that time, 0 is returned.
+.I Iomove
+is also usable as with
+.I write;
+the flag should be
+.I B_READ
+but the same cautions apply.
+.PP
+The ``special-functions'' routine
+is invoked by the
+.I stty
+and
+.I gtty
+system calls as follows:
+.I "(*p) (dev, v)"
+where
+.I p
+is a pointer to the device's routine,
+.I dev
+is the device number,
+and
+.I v
+is a vector.
+In the
+.I gtty
+case,
+the device is supposed to place up to 3 words of status information
+into the vector; this will be returned to the caller.
+In the
+.I stty
+case,
+.I v
+is 0;
+the device should take up to 3 words of
+control information from
+the array
+.I "u.u_arg[0...2]."
+.PP
+Finally, each device should have appropriate interrupt-time
+routines.
+When an interrupt occurs, it is turned into a C-compatible call
+on the devices's interrupt routine.
+The interrupt-catching mechanism makes
+the low-order four bits of the ``new PS'' word in the
+trap vector for the interrupt available
+to the interrupt handler.
+This is conventionally used by drivers
+which deal with multiple similar devices
+to encode the minor device number.
+After the interrupt has been processed,
+a return from the interrupt handler will
+return from the interrupt itself.
+.PP
+A number of subroutines are available which are useful
+to character device drivers.
+Most of these handlers, for example, need a place
+to buffer characters in the internal interface
+between their ``top half'' (read/write)
+and ``bottom half'' (interrupt) routines.
+For relatively low data-rate devices, the best mechanism
+is the character queue maintained by the
+routines
+.I getc
+and
+.I putc.
+A queue header has the structure
+.DS
+struct {
+	int	c_cc;	/* character count */
+	char	*c_cf;	/* first character */
+	char	*c_cl;	/* last character */
+} queue;
+.DE
+A character is placed on the end of a queue by
+.I "putc(c, &queue)"
+where
+.I c
+is the character and
+.I queue
+is the queue header.
+The routine returns \(mi1 if there is no space
+to put the character, 0 otherwise.
+The first character on the queue may be retrieved
+by
+.I "getc(&queue)"
+which returns either the (non-negative) character
+or \(mi1 if the queue is empty.
+.PP
+Notice that the space for characters in queues is
+shared among all devices in the system
+and in the standard system there are only some 600
+character slots available.
+Thus device handlers,
+especially write routines, must take
+care to avoid gobbling up excessive numbers of characters.
+.PP
+The other major help available
+to device handlers is the sleep-wakeup mechanism.
+The call
+.I "sleep(event, priority)"
+causes the process to wait (allowing other processes to run)
+until the
+.I event
+occurs;
+at that time, the process is marked ready-to-run
+and the call will return when there is no
+process with higher
+.I priority.
+.PP
+The call
+.I "wakeup(event)"
+indicates that the
+.I event
+has happened, that is, causes processes sleeping
+on the event to be awakened.
+The
+.I event
+is an arbitrary quantity agreed upon
+by the sleeper and the waker-up.
+By convention, it is the address of some data area used
+by the driver, which guarantees that events
+are unique.
+.PP
+Processes sleeping on an event should not assume
+that the event has really happened;
+they should check that the conditions which
+caused them to sleep no longer hold.
+.PP
+Priorities can range from 0 to 127;
+a higher numerical value indicates a less-favored
+scheduling situation.
+A distinction is made between processes sleeping
+at priority less than the parameter
+.I PZERO
+and those at numerically larger priorities.
+The former cannot
+be interrupted by signals, although it
+is conceivable that it may be swapped out.
+Thus it is a bad idea to sleep with
+priority less than PZERO on an event which might never occur.
+On the other hand, calls to
+.I sleep
+with larger priority
+may never return if the process is terminated by
+some signal in the meantime.
+Incidentally, it is a gross error to call
+.I sleep
+in a routine called at interrupt time, since the process
+which is running is almost certainly not the
+process which should go to sleep.
+Likewise, none of the variables in the user area
+``\fIu\fB.\fR''
+should be touched, let alone changed, by an interrupt routine.
+.PP
+If a device driver
+wishes to wait for some event for which it is inconvenient
+or impossible to supply a
+.I wakeup,
+(for example, a device going on-line, which does not
+generally cause an interrupt),
+the call
+.I "sleep(&lbolt, priority)
+may be given.
+.I Lbolt
+is an external cell whose address is awakened once every 4 seconds
+by the clock interrupt routine.
+.PP
+The routines
+.I "spl4( ), spl5( ), spl6( ), spl7( )"
+are available to
+set the processor priority level as indicated to avoid
+inconvenient interrupts from the device.
+.PP
+If a device needs to know about real-time intervals,
+then
+.I "timeout(func, arg, interval)
+will be useful.
+This routine arranges that after
+.I interval
+sixtieths of a second, the
+.I func
+will be called with
+.I arg
+as argument, in the style
+.I "(*func)(arg).
+Timeouts are used, for example,
+to provide real-time delays after function characters
+like new-line and tab in typewriter output,
+and to terminate an attempt to
+read the 201 Dataphone
+.I dp
+if there is no response within a specified number
+of seconds.
+Notice that the number of sixtieths of a second is limited to 32767,
+since it must appear to be positive,
+and that only a bounded number of timeouts
+can be going on at once.
+Also, the specified
+.I func
+is called at clock-interrupt time, so it should
+conform to the requirements of interrupt routines
+in general.
+.SH
+The Block-device Interface
+.PP
+Handling of block devices is mediated by a collection
+of routines that manage a set of buffers containing
+the images of blocks of data on the various devices.
+The most important purpose of these routines is to assure
+that several processes that access the same block of the same
+device in multiprogrammed fashion maintain a consistent
+view of the data in the block.
+A secondary but still important purpose is to increase
+the efficiency of the system by
+keeping in-core copies of blocks that are being
+accessed frequently.
+The main data base for this mechanism is the
+table of buffers
+.I buf.
+Each buffer header contains a pair of pointers
+.I "(b_forw, b_back)"
+which maintain a doubly-linked list
+of the buffers associated with a particular
+block device, and a
+pair of pointers
+.I "(av_forw, av_back)"
+which generally maintain a doubly-linked list of blocks
+which are ``free,'' that is,
+eligible to be reallocated for another transaction.
+Buffers that have I/O in progress
+or are busy for other purposes do not appear in this list.
+The buffer header
+also contains the device and block number to which the
+buffer refers, and a pointer to the actual storage associated with
+the buffer.
+There is a word count
+which is the negative of the number of words
+to be transferred to or from the buffer;
+there is also an error byte and a residual word
+count used to communicate information
+from an I/O routine to its caller.
+Finally, there is a flag word
+with bits indicating the status of the buffer.
+These flags will be discussed below.
+.PP
+Seven routines constitute
+the most important part of the interface with the
+rest of the system.
+Given a device and block number,
+both
+.I bread
+and
+.I getblk
+return a pointer to a buffer header for the block;
+the difference is that
+.I bread
+is guaranteed to return a buffer actually containing the
+current data for the block,
+while
+.I getblk
+returns a buffer which contains the data in the
+block only if it is already in core (whether it is
+or not is indicated by the
+.I B_DONE
+bit; see below).
+In either case the buffer, and the corresponding
+device block, is made ``busy,''
+so that other processes referring to it
+are obliged to wait until it becomes free.
+.I Getblk
+is used, for example,
+when a block is about to be totally rewritten,
+so that its previous contents are
+not useful;
+still, no other process can be allowed to refer to the block
+until the new data is placed into it.
+.PP
+The
+.I breada
+routine is used to implement read-ahead.
+it is logically similar to
+.I bread,
+but takes as an additional argument the number of
+a block (on the same device) to be read asynchronously
+after the specifically requested block is available.
+.PP
+Given a pointer to a buffer,
+the
+.I brelse
+routine
+makes the buffer again available to other processes.
+It is called, for example, after
+data has been extracted following a
+.I bread.
+There are three subtly-different write routines,
+all of which take a buffer pointer as argument,
+and all of which logically release the buffer for
+use by others and place it on the free list.
+.I Bwrite
+puts the
+buffer on the appropriate device queue,
+waits for the write to be done,
+and sets the user's error flag if required.
+.I Bawrite
+places the buffer on the device's queue, but does not wait
+for completion, so that errors cannot be reflected directly to
+the user.
+.I Bdwrite
+does not start any I/O operation at all,
+but merely marks
+the buffer so that if it happens
+to be grabbed from the free list to contain
+data from some other block, the data in it will
+first be written
+out.
+.PP
+.I Bwrite
+is used when one wants to be sure that
+I/O takes place correctly, and that
+errors are reflected to the proper user;
+it is used, for example, when updating i-nodes.
+.I Bawrite
+is useful when more overlap is desired
+(because no wait is required for I/O to finish)
+but when it is reasonably certain that the
+write is really required.
+.I Bdwrite
+is used when there is doubt that the write is
+needed at the moment.
+For example,
+.I bdwrite
+is called when the last byte of a
+.I write
+system call falls short of the end of a
+block, on the assumption that
+another
+.I write
+will be given soon which will re-use the same block.
+On the other hand,
+as the end of a block is passed,
+.I bawrite
+is called, since probably the block will
+not be accessed again soon and one might as
+well start the writing process as soon as possible.
+.PP
+In any event, notice that the routines
+.I "getblk"
+and
+.I bread
+dedicate the given block exclusively to the
+use of the caller, and make others wait,
+while one of
+.I "brelse, bwrite, bawrite,"
+or
+.I bdwrite
+must eventually be called to free the block for use by others.
+.PP
+As mentioned, each buffer header contains a flag
+word which indicates the status of the buffer.
+Since they provide
+one important channel for information between the drivers and the
+block I/O system, it is important to understand these flags.
+The following names are manifest constants which
+select the associated flag bits.
+.IP B_READ 10
+This bit is set when the buffer is handed to the device strategy routine
+(see below) to indicate a read operation.
+The symbol
+.I B_WRITE
+is defined as 0 and does not define a flag; it is provided
+as a mnemonic convenience to callers of routines like
+.I swap
+which have a separate argument
+which indicates read or write.
+.IP B_DONE 10
+This bit is set
+to 0 when a block is handed to the the device strategy
+routine and is turned on when the operation completes,
+whether normally as the result of an error.
+It is also used as part of the return argument of
+.I getblk
+to indicate if 1 that the returned
+buffer actually contains the data in the requested block.
+.IP B_ERROR 10
+This bit may be set to 1 when
+.I B_DONE
+is set to indicate that an I/O or other error occurred.
+If it is set the
+.I b_error
+byte of the buffer header may contain an error code
+if it is non-zero.
+If
+.I b_error
+is 0 the nature of the error is not specified.
+Actually no driver at present sets
+.I b_error;
+the latter is provided for a future improvement
+whereby a more detailed error-reporting
+scheme may be implemented.
+.IP B_BUSY 10
+This bit indicates that the buffer header is not on
+the free list, i.e. is
+dedicated to someone's exclusive use.
+The buffer still remains attached to the list of
+blocks associated with its device, however.
+When
+.I getblk
+(or
+.I bread,
+which calls it) searches the buffer list
+for a given device and finds the requested
+block with this bit on, it sleeps until the bit
+clears.
+.IP B_PHYS 10
+This bit is set for raw I/O transactions that
+need to allocate the Unibus map on an 11/70.
+.IP B_MAP 10
+This bit is set on buffers that have the Unibus map allocated,
+so that the
+.I iodone
+routine knows to deallocate the map.
+.IP B_WANTED 10
+This flag is used in conjunction with the
+.I B_BUSY
+bit.
+Before sleeping as described
+just above,
+.I getblk
+sets this flag.
+Conversely, when the block is freed and the busy bit
+goes down (in
+.I brelse)
+a
+.I wakeup
+is given for the block header whenever
+.I B_WANTED
+is on.
+This strategem avoids the overhead
+of having to call
+.I wakeup
+every time a buffer is freed on the chance that someone
+might want it.
+.IP B_AGE
+This bit may be set on buffers just before releasing them; if it
+is on,
+the buffer is placed at the head of the free list, rather than at the
+tail.
+It is a performance heuristic
+used when the caller judges that the same block will not soon be used again.
+.IP B_ASYNC 10
+This bit is set by
+.I bawrite
+to indicate to the appropriate device driver
+that the buffer should be released when the
+write has been finished, usually at interrupt time.
+The difference between
+.I bwrite
+and
+.I bawrite
+is that the former starts I/O, waits until it is done, and
+frees the buffer.
+The latter merely sets this bit and starts I/O.
+The bit indicates that
+.I relse
+should be called for the buffer on completion.
+.IP B_DELWRI 10
+This bit is set by
+.I bdwrite
+before releasing the buffer.
+When
+.I getblk,
+while searching for a free block,
+discovers the bit is 1 in a buffer it would otherwise grab,
+it causes the block to be written out before reusing it.
+.SH
+Block Device Drivers
+.PP
+The
+.I bdevsw
+table contains the names of the interface routines
+and that of a table for each block device.
+.PP
+Just as for character devices, block device drivers may supply
+an
+.I open
+and a
+.I close
+routine
+called respectively on each open and on the final close
+of the device.
+Instead of separate read and write routines,
+each block device driver has a
+.I strategy
+routine which is called with a pointer to a buffer
+header as argument.
+As discussed, the buffer header contains
+a read/write flag, the core address,
+the block number, a (negative) word count,
+and the major and minor device number.
+The role of the strategy routine
+is to carry out the operation as requested by the
+information in the buffer header.
+When the transaction is complete the
+.I B_DONE
+(and possibly the
+.I B_ERROR)
+bits should be set.
+Then if the
+.I B_ASYNC
+bit is set,
+.I brelse
+should be called;
+otherwise,
+.I wakeup.
+In cases where the device
+is capable, under error-free operation,
+of transferring fewer words than requested,
+the device's word-count register should be placed
+in the residual count slot of
+the buffer header;
+otherwise, the residual count should be set to 0.
+This particular mechanism is really for the benefit
+of the magtape driver;
+when reading this device
+records shorter than requested are quite normal,
+and the user should be told the actual length of the record.
+.PP
+Although the most usual argument
+to the strategy routines
+is a genuine buffer header allocated as discussed above,
+all that is actually required
+is that the argument be a pointer to a place containing the
+appropriate information.
+For example the
+.I swap
+routine, which manages movement
+of core images to and from the swapping device,
+uses the strategy routine
+for this device.
+Care has to be taken that
+no extraneous bits get turned on in the
+flag word.
+.PP
+The device's table specified by
+.I bdevsw
+has a
+byte to contain an active flag and an error count,
+a pair of links which constitute the
+head of the chain of buffers for the device
+.I "(b_forw, b_back),"
+and a first and last pointer for a device queue.
+Of these things, all are used solely by the device driver
+itself
+except for the buffer-chain pointers.
+Typically the flag encodes the state of the
+device, and is used at a minimum to
+indicate that the device is currently engaged in
+transferring information and no new command should be issued.
+The error count is useful for counting retries
+when errors occur.
+The device queue is used to remember stacked requests;
+in the simplest case it may be maintained as a first-in
+first-out list.
+Since buffers which have been handed over to
+the strategy routines are never
+on the list of free buffers,
+the pointers in the buffer which maintain the free list
+.I "(av_forw, av_back)"
+are also used to contain the pointers
+which maintain the device queues.
+.PP
+A couple of routines
+are provided which are useful to block device drivers.
+.I "iodone(bp)"
+arranges that the buffer to which
+.I bp
+points be released or awakened,
+as appropriate,
+when the
+strategy module has finished with the buffer,
+either normally or after an error.
+(In the latter case the
+.I B_ERROR
+bit has presumably been set.)
+.PP
+The routine
+.I "geterror(bp)"
+can be used to examine the error bit in a buffer header
+and arrange that any error indication found therein is
+reflected to the user.
+It may be called only in the non-interrupt
+part of a driver when I/O has completed
+.I (B_DONE
+has been set).
+.SH
+Raw Block-device I/O
+.PP
+A scheme has been set up whereby block device drivers may
+provide the ability to transfer information
+directly between the user's core image and the device
+without the use of buffers and in blocks as large as
+the caller requests.
+The method involves setting up a character-type special file
+corresponding to the raw device
+and providing
+.I read
+and
+.I write
+routines which set up what is usually a private,
+non-shared buffer header with the appropriate information
+and call the device's strategy routine.
+If desired, separate
+.I open
+and
+.I close
+routines may be provided but this is usually unnecessary.
+A special-function routine might come in handy, especially for
+magtape.
+.PP
+A great deal of work has to be done to generate the
+``appropriate information''
+to put in the argument buffer for
+the strategy module;
+the worst part is to map relocated user addresses to physical addresses.
+Most of this work is done by
+.I "physio(strat, bp, dev, rw)
+whose arguments are the name of the
+strategy routine
+.I strat,
+the buffer pointer
+.I bp,
+the device number
+.I dev,
+and a read-write flag
+.I rw
+whose value is either
+.I B_READ
+or
+.I B_WRITE.
+.I Physio
+makes sure that the user's base address and count are
+even (because most devices work in words)
+and that the core area affected is contiguous
+in physical space;
+it delays until the buffer is not busy, and makes it
+busy while the operation is in progress;
+and it sets up user error return information.
diff --git a/usr/doc/lex b/usr/doc/lex
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..02ebb2c155
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/lex
@@ -0,0 +1,2310 @@
+.hc ~
+.bd I 2
+.de TS
+.br
+.nf
+.SP 1v
+.ul 0
+..
+.de TE
+.SP 1v
+.fi
+..
+.de PT
+.if \\n%>1 'tl ''\s7LEX\s0\s9\(mi%\s0''
+.if \\n%>1 'sp
+..
+.ND July 21, 1975
+.RP
+.TM 75-1274-15 39199 39199-11
+.TL
+Lex \- A Lexical Analyzer ~Generator~
+.AU ``MH 2C-569'' 6377
+M. E. Lesk and E. Schmidt
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+.sp
+.bd I 2
+.nr PS 8
+.nr VS 9
+.ps 8
+.vs 9p
+Lex helps write programs whose control flow
+is directed by instances of regular
+expressions in the input stream.
+It is well suited for editor-script type transformations and
+for segmenting input in preparation for
+a parsing routine.
+.PP
+Lex source is a table of regular expressions and corresponding program fragments.
+The table is translated to a program
+which reads an input stream, copying it to an output stream
+and partitioning the input
+into strings which match the given expressions.
+As each such string is recognized the corresponding
+program fragment is executed.
+The recognition of the expressions
+is performed by a deterministic finite automaton
+generated by Lex.
+The program fragments written by the user are executed in the order in which the
+corresponding regular expressions occur in the input stream.
+.if n .if \n(tm .ig
+.PP
+The lexical analysis
+programs written with Lex accept ambiguous specifications
+and choose the longest
+match possible at each input point.
+If necessary, substantial look~ahead
+is performed on the input, but the
+input stream will be backed up to the
+end of the current partition, so that the user
+has general freedom to manipulate it.
+.PP
+Lex can generate analyzers in either C or Ratfor, a language
+which can be translated automatically to portable Fortran.
+It is available on the PDP-11 UNIX, Honeywell GCOS,
+and IBM OS systems.
+This manual, however, will only discuss generating analyzers
+in C on the UNIX system, which is the only supported
+form of Lex under UNIX Version 7.
+Lex is designed to simplify
+interfacing with Yacc, for those
+with access to this compiler-compiler system.
+..
+.nr PS 9
+.nr VS 11
+.AE
+.SH
+.ce 1
+Table of Contents
+.LP
+.ce 100
+.TS
+r 1l 2r .
+1.	Introduction.	1
+2.	Lex Source.	3
+3.	Lex Regular Expressions.	3
+4.	Lex Actions.	5
+5.	Ambiguous Source Rules.	7
+6.	Lex Source Definitions.	8
+7.	Usage.	8
+8.	Lex and Yacc.	9
+9.	Examples.	10
+10.	Left Context Sensitivity.	11
+11.	Character Set.	12
+12.	Summary of Source Format.	12
+13.	Caveats and Bugs.	13
+14.	Acknowledgments.	13
+15.	References.	13
+.TE
+.ce 0
+.2C
+.NH
+Introduction.
+.PP
+Lex is a program generator designed for
+lexical processing of character input streams.
+It accepts a high-level, problem oriented specification
+for character string matching,
+and
+produces a program in a general purpose language which recognizes
+regular expressions.
+The regular expressions are specified by the user in the
+source specifications given to Lex.
+The Lex written code recognizes these expressions
+in an input stream and partitions the input stream into
+strings matching the expressions.  At the bound~aries
+between strings
+program sections
+provided by the user are executed.
+The Lex source file associates the regular expressions and the
+program fragments.
+As each expression appears in the input to the program written by Lex,
+the corresponding fragment is executed.
+.PP
+.de MH
+Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ 07974.
+..
+The user supplies the additional code
+beyond expression matching
+needed to complete his tasks, possibly
+including code written by other generators.
+The program that recognizes the expressions is generated in the
+general purpose programming language employed for the
+user's program fragments.
+Thus, a high level expression
+language is provided to write the string expressions to be
+matched while the user's freedom to write actions
+is unimpaired.
+This avoids forcing the user who wishes to use a string manipulation
+language for input analysis to write processing programs in the same
+and often inappropriate string handling language.
+.PP
+Lex is not a complete language, but rather a generator representing
+a new language feature which can be added to
+different programming languages, called ``host languages.'' 
+Just as general purpose languages
+can produce code to run on different computer hardware,
+Lex can write code in different host languages.
+The host language is used for the output code generated by Lex
+and also for the program fragments added by the user.
+Compatible run-time libraries for the different host languages
+are also provided.
+This makes Lex adaptable to different environments and
+different users.
+Each application
+may be directed to the combination of hardware and host language appropriate
+to the task, the user's background, and the properties of local
+implementations.
+At present, the only supported host language is C,
+although Fortran (in the form of Ratfor [2] has been available
+in the past.
+Lex itself exists on UNIX, GCOS, and OS/370; but the
+code generated by Lex may be taken anywhere the appropriate
+compilers exist.
+.PP
+Lex turns the user's expressions and actions
+(called
+.ul
+source
+in this memo) into the host general-purpose language;
+the generated program is named
+.ul
+yylex.
+The
+.ul
+yylex
+program
+will recognize expressions
+in a stream
+(called
+.ul
+input
+in this memo)
+and perform the specified actions for each expression as it is detected.
+See Figure 1.
+.GS
+.TS
+center;
+l _ r
+l|c|r
+l _ r
+l _ r
+l|c|r
+l _ r
+c s s
+c s s.
+
+Source \(->	Lex	\(-> yylex
+
+.sp 2
+
+Input \(->	yylex	\(-> Output
+
+.sp
+An overview of Lex
+.sp
+Figure 1
+.TE
+.GE
+.PP
+For a trivial example, consider a program to delete
+from the input
+all blanks or tabs at the ends of lines.
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%%
+[ \et]+$	;
+.TE
+is all that is required.
+The program
+contains a %% delimiter to mark the beginning of the rules, and
+one rule.
+This rule contains a regular expression
+which matches one or more
+instances of the characters blank or tab
+(written \et for visibility, in accordance with the C language convention)
+just prior to the end of a line.
+The brackets indicate the character
+class made of blank and tab; the + indicates ``one or more ...'';
+and the $ indicates ``end of line,'' as in QED.
+No action is specified,
+so the program generated by Lex (yylex) will ignore these characters.
+Everything else will be copied.
+To change any remaining
+string of blanks or tabs to a single blank,
+add another rule:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%%
+[ \et]+$	;
+[ \et]+	printf(" ");
+.TE
+The finite automaton generated for this
+source will scan for both rules at once,
+observing at
+the termination of the string of blanks or tabs
+whether or not there is a newline character, and executing
+the desired rule action.
+The first rule matches all strings of blanks or tabs
+at the end of lines, and the second
+rule all remaining strings of blanks or tabs.
+.PP
+Lex can be used alone for simple transformations, or
+for analysis and statistics gathering on a lexical level.
+Lex can also be used with a parser generator
+to perform the lexical analysis phase; it is particularly
+easy to interface Lex and Yacc [3].
+Lex programs recognize only regular expressions;
+Yacc writes parsers that accept a large class of context free grammars,
+but require a lower level analyzer to recognize input tokens.
+Thus, a combination of Lex and Yacc is often appropriate.
+When used as a preprocessor for a later parser generator,
+Lex is used to partition the input stream,
+and the parser generator assigns structure to
+the resulting pieces.
+The flow of control
+in such a case (which might be the first half of a compiler,
+for example) is shown in Figure 2.
+Additional programs,
+written by other generators
+or by hand, can
+be added easily to programs written by Lex.
+.BS 2
+.TS
+center;
+l c c c l
+l c c c l
+l c c c l
+l _ c _ l
+l|c|c|c|l
+l _ c _ l
+l c c c l
+l _ c _ l
+l|c|c|c|l
+l _ c _ l
+l c s s l
+l c s s l.
+	lexical		grammar
+	rules		rules
+	\(da		\(da
+
+	Lex		Yacc
+
+	\(da		\(da
+
+Input \(->	yylex	\(->	yyparse	\(-> Parsed input
+
+.sp
+	Lex with Yacc
+.sp
+	Figure 2
+.TE
+.BE
+Yacc users
+will realize that the name
+.ul
+yylex
+is what Yacc expects its lexical analyzer to be named,
+so that the use of this name by Lex simplifies
+interfacing.
+.PP
+Lex generates a deterministic finite automaton from the regular expressions
+in the source [4].
+The automaton is interpreted, rather than compiled, in order
+to save space.
+The result is still a fast analyzer.
+In particular, the time taken by a Lex program
+to recognize and partition an input stream is
+proportional to the length of the input.
+The number of Lex rules or
+the complexity of the rules is
+not important in determining speed,
+unless rules which include
+forward context require a significant amount of re~scanning.
+What does increase with the number and complexity of rules
+is the size of the finite
+automaton, and therefore the size of the program
+generated by Lex.
+.PP
+In the program written by Lex, the user's fragments
+(representing the
+.ul
+actions
+to be performed as each regular expression
+is found)
+are gathered
+as cases of a switch.
+The automaton interpreter directs the control flow.
+Opportunity is provided for the user to insert either
+declarations or additional statements in the routine containing
+the actions, or to
+add subroutines outside this action routine.
+.PP
+Lex is not limited to source which can
+be interpreted on the basis of one character
+look~ahead.
+For example,
+if there are two rules, one looking for
+.I ab
+and another for
+.I abcdefg ,
+and the input stream is
+.I abcdefh ,
+Lex will recognize
+.I ab
+and leave
+the input pointer just before
+.I "cd. . ."
+Such backup is more costly
+than the processing of simpler languages.
+.2C
+.NH
+Lex Source.
+.PP
+The general format of Lex source is:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+{definitions}
+%%
+{rules}
+%%
+{user subroutines}
+.TE
+where the definitions and the user subroutines
+are often omitted.
+The second
+.I %%
+is optional, but the first is required
+to mark the beginning of the rules.
+The absolute minimum Lex program is thus
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+%%
+.TE
+(no definitions, no rules) which translates into a program
+which copies the input to the output unchanged.
+.PP
+In the outline of Lex programs shown above, the
+.I
+rules
+.R
+represent the user's control
+decisions; they are a table, in which the left column
+contains
+.I
+regular expressions
+.R
+(see section 3)
+and the right column contains
+.I
+actions,
+.R
+program fragments to be executed when the expressions
+are recognized.
+Thus an individual rule might appear
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+integer	printf("found keyword INT");
+.TE
+to look for the string
+.I integer
+in the input stream and
+print the message ``found keyword INT'' whenever it appears.
+In this example the host procedural language is C and
+the C library function
+.I
+printf
+.R
+is used to print the string.
+The end
+of the expression is indicated by the first blank or tab character.
+If the action is merely a single C expression,
+it can just be given on the right side of the line; if it is
+compound, or takes more than a line, it should be enclosed in
+braces.
+As a slightly more useful example, suppose it is desired to
+change a number of words from British to American spelling.
+Lex rules such as
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+colour	printf("color");
+mechanise	printf("mechanize");
+petrol	printf("gas");
+.TE
+would be a start.  These rules are not quite enough,
+since
+the word
+.I petroleum
+would become
+.I gaseum ;
+a way of dealing
+with this will be described later.
+.2C
+.NH
+Lex Regular Expressions.
+.PP
+The definitions of regular expressions are very similar to those
+in QED [5].
+A regular
+expression specifies a set of strings to be matched.
+It contains text characters (which match the corresponding
+characters in the strings being compared)
+and operator characters (which specify
+repetitions, choices, and other features).
+The letters of the alphabet and the digits are
+always text characters; thus the regular expression
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+integer
+.TE
+matches the string
+.ul
+integer
+wherever it appears
+and the expression
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+a57D
+.TE
+looks for the string
+.ul
+a57D.
+.PP
+.I
+Operators.
+.R
+The operator characters are
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+" \e [ ] ^ \- ? . \(** + | ( ) $ / { } % < >
+.TE
+and if they are to be used as text characters, an escape
+should be used.
+The quotation mark operator (")
+indicates that whatever is contained between a pair of quotes
+is to be taken as text characters.
+Thus
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+xyz"++"
+.TE
+matches the string
+.I xyz++
+when it appears.  Note that a part of a string may be quoted.
+It is harmless but unnecessary to quote an ordinary
+text character; the expression
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+"xyz++"
+.TE
+is the same as the one above.
+Thus by quoting every non-alphanumeric character
+being used as a text character, the user can avoid remembering
+the list above of current
+operator characters, and is safe should further extensions to Lex
+lengthen the list.
+.PP
+An operator character may also be turned into a text character
+by preceding it with \e as in
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+xyz\e+\e+
+.TE
+which
+is another, less readable, equivalent of the above expressions.
+Another use of the quoting mechanism is to get a blank into
+an expression; normally, as explained above, blanks or tabs end
+a rule.
+Any blank character not contained within [\|] (see below) must
+be quoted.
+Several normal C escapes with \e
+are recognized: \en is newline, \et is tab, and \eb is backspace.
+To enter \e itself, use \e\e.
+Since newline is illegal in an expression, \en must be used;
+it is not
+required to escape tab and backspace.
+Every character but blank, tab, newline and the list above is always
+a text character.
+.PP
+.I
+Character classes.
+.R
+Classes of characters can be specified using the operator pair [\|].
+The construction
+.I [abc]
+matches a
+single character, which may be
+.I a ,
+.I b ,
+or
+.I c .
+Within square brackets,
+most operator meanings are ignored.
+Only three characters are special:
+these are \e \(mi and ^.  The \(mi character
+indicates ranges.  For example,
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[a\(miz0\(mi9<>_]
+.TE
+indicates the character class containing all the lower case letters,
+the digits,
+the angle brackets, and underline.
+Ranges may be given in either order.
+Using \(mi between any pair of characters which are
+not both upper case letters, both lower case letters, or both digits
+is implementation dependent and will get a warning message.
+(E.g., [0\-z] in ASCII is many more characters
+than it is in EBCDIC).
+If it is desired to include the
+character \(mi in a character class, it should be first or
+last; thus
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[\(mi+0\(mi9]
+.TE
+matches all the digits and the two signs.
+.PP
+In character classes,
+the ^ operator must appear as the first character
+after the left bracket; it indicates that the resulting string
+is to be complemented with respect to the computer character set.
+Thus
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[^abc]
+.TE
+matches all characters except a, b, or c, including
+all special or control characters; or
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[^a\-zA\-Z]
+.TE
+is any character which is not a letter.
+The \e character provides the usual escapes within
+character class brackets.
+.PP
+.I
+Arbitrary character.
+.R
+To match almost any character, the operator character
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+\&.
+.TE
+is the class of all characters except newline.
+Escaping into octal is possible although non-portable:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[\e40\-\e176]
+.TE
+matches all printable characters in the ASCII character set, from octal
+40 (blank) to octal 176 (tilde).
+.PP
+.I
+Optional expressions.
+.R
+The operator
+.I ?
+indicates
+an optional element of an expression.
+Thus
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+ab?c
+.TE
+matches either
+.I ac
+or
+.I abc .
+.PP
+.I
+Repeated expressions.
+.R
+Repetitions of classes are indicated by the operators
+.I \(**
+and
+.I + .
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+\f2a\(**\f1
+.TE
+is any number of consecutive
+.I a
+characters, including zero; while
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+a+
+.TE
+is one or more instances of
+.I a.
+For example,
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[a\-z]+
+.TE
+is all strings of lower case letters.
+And
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[A\(miZa\(miz][A\(miZa\(miz0\(mi9]\(**
+.TE
+indicates all alphanumeric strings with a leading
+alphabetic character.
+This is a typical expression for recognizing identifiers in
+computer languages.
+.PP
+.I
+Alternation and Grouping.
+.R
+The operator |
+indicates alternation:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+(ab\||\|cd)
+.TE
+matches either
+.ul
+ab
+or
+.ul
+cd.
+Note that parentheses are used for grouping, although
+they are
+not necessary on the outside level;
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+ab\||\|cd
+.TE
+would have sufficed.
+Parentheses
+can be used for more complex expressions:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+(ab\||\|cd+)?(ef)\(**
+.TE
+matches such strings as
+.I abefef ,
+.I efefef ,
+.I cdef ,
+or
+.I cddd\| ;
+but not
+.I abc ,
+.I abcd ,
+or
+.I abcdef .
+.PP
+.I
+Context sensitivity.
+.R
+Lex will recognize a small amount of surrounding
+context.  The two simplest operators for this are
+.I ^
+and
+.I $ .
+If the first character of an expression is
+.I ^ ,
+the expression will only be matched at the beginning
+of a line (after a newline character, or at the beginning of
+the input stream).
+This can never conflict with the other meaning of
+.I ^ ,
+complementation
+of character classes, since that only applies within
+the [\|] operators.
+If the very last character is
+.I $ ,
+the expression will only be matched at the end of a line (when
+immediately followed by newline).
+The latter operator is a special case of the
+.I /
+operator character,
+which indicates trailing context.
+The expression
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+ab/cd
+.TE
+matches the string
+.I ab ,
+but only if followed by
+.ul
+cd.
+Thus
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+ab$
+.TE
+is the same as
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+ab/\en
+.TE
+Left context is handled in Lex by
+.I
+start conditions
+.R
+as explained in section 10.  If a rule is only to be executed
+when the Lex automaton interpreter is in start condition
+.I
+x,
+.R
+the rule should be prefixed by
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+<x>
+.TE
+using the angle bracket operator characters.
+If we considered ``being at the beginning of a line'' to be
+start condition
+.I ONE ,
+then the ^ operator
+would be equivalent to
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+<ONE>
+.TE
+Start conditions are explained more fully later.
+.PP
+.I
+Repetitions and Definitions.
+.R
+The operators {} specify
+either repetitions (if they enclose numbers)
+or
+definition expansion (if they enclose a name).  For example
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+{digit}
+.TE
+looks for a predefined string named
+.I digit
+and inserts it
+at that point in the expression.
+The definitions are given in the first part of the Lex
+input, before the rules.
+In contrast,
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+a{1,5}
+.TE
+looks for 1 to 5 occurrences of
+.I a .
+.PP
+Finally, initial
+.I %
+is special, being the separator
+for Lex source segments.
+.2C
+.NH
+Lex Actions.
+.PP
+When an expression written as above is matched, Lex
+executes the corresponding action.  This section describes
+some features of Lex which aid in writing actions.  Note
+that there is a default action, which
+consists of copying the input to the output.  This
+is performed on all strings not otherwise matched.  Thus
+the Lex user who wishes to absorb the entire input, without
+producing any output, must provide rules to match everything.
+When Lex is being used with Yacc, this is the normal
+situation.
+One may consider that actions are what is done instead of
+copying the input to the output; thus, in general,
+a rule which merely copies can be omitted.
+Also, a character combination
+which is omitted from the rules
+and which appears as input
+is likely to be printed on the output, thus calling
+attention to the gap in the rules.
+.PP
+One of the simplest things that can be done is to ignore
+the input.   Specifying a C null statement, \fI;\fR as an action
+causes this result.  A frequent rule is
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+[ \et\en]	;
+.TE
+which causes the three spacing characters (blank, tab, and newline)
+to be ignored.
+.PP
+Another easy way to avoid writing actions is the action character
+|, which indicates that the action for this rule is the action
+for the next rule.
+The previous example could also have been written
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+" "		|
+"\et"		|
+"\en"		;
+.TE
+with the same result, although in different style.
+The quotes around \en and \et are not required.
+.PP
+In more complex actions, the user
+will
+often want to know the actual text that matched some expression
+like
+.I [a\(miz]+ .
+Lex leaves this text in an external character
+array named
+.I
+yytext.
+.R
+Thus, to print the name found,
+a rule like
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+[a\-z]+	printf("%s", yytext);
+.TE
+will print
+the string in
+.I
+yytext.
+.R
+The C function
+.I
+printf
+.R
+accepts a format argument and data to be printed;
+in this case, the format is ``print string'' (% indicating
+data conversion, and
+.I s
+indicating string type),
+and the data are the characters
+in
+.I
+yytext.
+.R
+So this just places
+the matched string
+on the output.
+This action
+is so common that
+it may be written as ECHO:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+[a\-z]+	ECHO;
+.TE
+is the same as the above.
+Since the default action is just to
+print the characters found, one might ask why
+give a rule, like this one, which merely specifies
+the default action?
+Such rules are often required
+to avoid matching some other rule
+which is not desired.  For example, if there is a rule
+which matches
+.I read
+it will normally match the instances of
+.I read
+contained in
+.I bread
+or
+.I readjust ;
+to avoid
+this,
+a rule
+of the form
+.I [a\(miz]+
+is needed.
+This is explained further below.
+.PP
+Sometimes it is more convenient to know the end of what
+has been found; hence Lex also provides a count
+.I
+yyleng
+.R
+of the number of characters matched.
+To count both the number
+of words and the number of characters in words in the input, the user might write
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+[a\-zA\-Z]+	{words++; chars += yyleng;}
+.TE
+which accumulates in
+.ul
+chars
+the number
+of characters in the words recognized.
+The last character in the string matched can
+be accessed by
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+yytext[yyleng\-1]
+.TE
+.PP
+Occasionally, a Lex
+action may decide that a rule has not recognized the correct
+span of characters.
+Two routines are provided to aid with this situation.
+First,
+.I
+yymore()
+.R
+can be called to indicate that the next input expression recognized is to be
+tacked on to the end of this input.  Normally,
+the next input string would overwrite the current
+entry in
+.I
+yytext.
+.R
+Second,
+.I
+yyless (n)
+.R
+may be called to indicate that not all the characters matched
+by the currently successful expression are wanted right now.
+The argument
+.I
+n
+.R
+indicates the number of characters
+in
+.I
+yytext
+.R
+to be retained.
+Further characters previously matched
+are
+returned to the input.  This provides the same sort of
+look~ahead offered by the / operator,
+but in a different form.
+.PP
+.I
+Example:
+.R
+Consider a language which defines
+a string as a set of characters between quotation (") marks, and provides that
+to include a " in a string it must be preceded by a \e.  The
+regular expression which matches that is somewhat confusing,
+so that it might be preferable to write
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+\e"[^"]\(**	{
+	if (yytext[yyleng\-1] == \(fm\e\e\(fm)
+	     yymore();
+	else
+	     ... normal user processing
+	}
+.TE
+which will, when faced with a string such as
+.I
+"abc\e"def\|"
+.R
+first match
+the five characters
+\fI"abc\e\|\fR;
+then
+the call to
+.I yymore()
+will
+cause the next part of the string,
+\fI"def\|\fR,
+to be tacked on the end.
+Note that the final quote terminating the string should be picked
+up in the code labeled ``normal processing''.
+.PP
+The function
+.I
+yyless()
+.R
+might be used to reprocess
+text in various circumstances.  Consider the C problem of distinguishing
+the ambiguity of ``=\(mia''.
+Suppose it is desired to treat this as ``=\(mi a''
+but print a message.  A rule might be
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+=\(mi[a\-zA\-Z]	{
+	printf("Operator (=\(mi) ambiguous\en");
+	yyless(yyleng\-1);
+	... action for =\(mi ...
+	}
+.TE
+which prints a message, returns the letter after the
+operator to the input stream, and treats the operator as ``=\(mi''.
+Alternatively it might be desired to treat this as ``=  \(mia''.
+To do this, just return the minus
+sign as well as the letter to the input:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+=\(mi[a\-zA\-Z]	{
+	printf("Operator (=\(mi) ambiguous\en");
+	yyless(yyleng\-2);
+	... action for = ...
+	}
+.TE
+will perform the other interpretation.
+Note that the expressions for the two cases might more easily
+be written
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+=\(mi/[A\-Za\-z]
+.TE
+in the first case and
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+=/\-[A\-Za\-z]
+.TE
+in the second;
+no backup would be required in the rule action.
+It is not necessary to recognize the whole identifier
+to observe the ambiguity.
+The
+possibility of ``=\(mi3'', however, makes
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+=\(mi/[^ \et\en]
+.TE
+a still better rule.
+.PP
+In addition to these routines, Lex also permits
+access to the I/O routines
+it uses.
+They are:
+.IP 1)
+.I
+input()
+.R
+which returns the next input character;
+.IP 2)
+.I
+output(c)
+.R
+which writes the character
+.I
+c
+.R
+on the output; and
+.IP 3)
+.I
+unput(c)
+.R
+pushes the character
+.I
+c
+.R
+back onto the input stream to be read later by
+.I
+input().
+.R
+.LP
+By default these routines are provided as macro definitions,
+but the user can override them and supply private versions.
+These routines
+define the relationship between external files and
+internal characters, and must all be retained
+or modified consistently.
+They may be redefined, to
+cause input or output to be transmitted to or from strange
+places, including other programs or internal memory;
+but the character set used must be consistent in all routines;
+a value of zero returned by
+.I
+input
+.R
+must mean end of file; and
+the relationship between
+.I
+unput
+.R
+and
+.I
+input
+.R
+must be retained
+or the Lex look~ahead will not work.
+Lex does not look ahead at all if it does not have to,
+but every rule ending in
+.ft I
++ \(** ?
+.ft R
+or
+.ft I
+$
+.ft R
+or containing
+.ft I
+/
+.ft R
+implies look~ahead.
+Look~ahead is also necessary to match an expression that is a prefix
+of another expression.
+See below for a discussion of the character set used by Lex.
+The standard Lex library imposes
+a 100 character limit on backup.
+.PP
+Another Lex library routine that the user will sometimes want
+to redefine is
+.I
+yywrap()
+.R
+which is called whenever Lex reaches an end-of-file.
+If
+.I
+yywrap
+.R
+returns a 1, Lex continues with the normal wrapup on end of input.
+Sometimes, however, it is convenient to arrange for more
+input to arrive
+from a new source.
+In this case, the user should provide
+a
+.I
+yywrap
+.R
+which
+arranges for new input and
+returns 0.  This instructs Lex to continue processing.
+The default
+.I
+yywrap
+.R
+always returns 1.
+.PP
+This routine is also a convenient place
+to print tables, summaries, etc. at the end
+of a program.  Note that it is not
+possible to write a normal rule which recognizes
+end-of-file; the only access to this condition is
+through
+.I
+yywrap.
+.R
+In fact, unless a private version of
+.I
+input()
+.R
+is supplied
+a file containing nulls
+cannot be handled,
+since a value of 0 returned by
+.I
+input
+.R
+is taken to be end-of-file.
+.PP
+.2C
+.NH
+Ambiguous Source Rules.
+.PP
+Lex can handle ambiguous specifications.
+When more than one expression can match the
+current input, Lex chooses as follows:
+.IP 1)
+The longest match is preferred.
+.IP 2)
+Among rules which matched the same number of characters,
+the rule given first is preferred.
+.LP
+Thus, suppose the rules
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+integer	keyword action ...;
+[a\-z]+	identifier action ...;
+.TE
+to be given in that order.  If the input is
+.I integers ,
+it is taken as an identifier, because
+.I [a\-z]+
+matches 8 characters while
+.I integer
+matches only 7.
+If the input is
+.I integer ,
+both rules match 7 characters, and
+the keyword rule is selected because it was given first.
+Anything shorter (e.g. \fIint\fR\|) will
+not match the expression
+.I integer
+and so the identifier interpretation is used.
+.PP
+The principle of preferring the longest
+match makes rules containing
+expressions like
+.I \&.\(**
+dangerous.
+For example,
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+\&\(fm.\(**\(fm
+.TE
+might seem a good way of recognizing
+a string in single quotes.
+But it is an invitation for the program to read far
+ahead, looking for a distant
+single quote.
+Presented with the input
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+\&\(fmfirst\(fm quoted string here, \(fmsecond\(fm here
+.TE
+the above expression will match
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+\&\(fmfirst\(fm quoted string here, \(fmsecond\(fm
+.TE
+which is probably not what was wanted.
+A better rule is of the form
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+\&\(fm[^\(fm\en]\(**\(fm
+.TE
+which, on the above input, will stop
+after
+.I \(fmfirst\(fm .
+The consequences
+of errors like this are mitigated by the fact
+that the
+.I \&.
+operator will not match newline.
+Thus expressions like
+.I \&.\(**
+stop on the
+current line.
+Don't try to defeat this with expressions like
+.I [.\en]+
+or
+equivalents;
+the Lex generated program will try to read
+the entire input file, causing
+internal buffer overflows.
+.PP
+Note that Lex is normally partitioning
+the input stream, not searching for all possible matches
+of each expression.
+This means that each character is accounted for
+once and only once.
+For example, suppose it is desired to
+count occurrences of both \fIshe\fR and \fIhe\fR in an input text.
+Some Lex rules to do this might be
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+she	s++;
+he	h++;
+\en	|
+\&.	;
+.TE
+where the last two rules ignore everything besides \fIhe\fR and \fIshe\fR.
+Remember that . does not include newline.
+Since \fIshe\fR includes \fIhe\fR, Lex will normally
+.I
+not
+.R
+recognize
+the instances of \fIhe\fR included in \fIshe\fR,
+since once it has passed a \fIshe\fR those characters are gone.
+.PP
+Sometimes the user would like to override this choice.  The action
+REJECT
+means ``go do the next alternative.''
+It causes whatever rule was second choice after the current
+rule to be executed.
+The position of the input pointer is adjusted accordingly.
+Suppose the user really wants to count the included instances of \fIhe\fR:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+she	{s++; REJECT;}
+he	{h++; REJECT;}
+\en	|
+\&.	;
+.TE
+these rules are one way of changing the previous example
+to do just that.
+After counting each expression, it is rejected; whenever appropriate,
+the other expression will then be counted.  In this example, of course,
+the user could note that \fIshe\fR includes \fIhe\fR but not
+vice versa, and omit the REJECT action on \fIhe\fR;
+in other cases, however, it
+would not be possible a priori to tell
+which input characters
+were in both classes.
+.PP
+Consider the two rules
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+a[bc]+	{ ... ; REJECT;}
+a[cd]+	{ ... ; REJECT;}
+.TE
+If the input is
+.I ab ,
+only the first rule matches,
+and on
+.I ad
+only the second matches.
+The input string
+.I accb
+matches the first rule for four characters
+and then the second rule for three characters.
+In contrast, the input
+.I accd
+agrees with
+the second rule for four characters and then the first
+rule for three.
+.PP
+In general, REJECT is useful whenever
+the purpose of Lex is not to partition the input
+stream but to detect all examples of some items
+in the input, and the instances of these items
+may overlap or include each other.
+Suppose a digram table of the input is desired;
+normally the digrams overlap, that is the word
+.I the
+is considered to contain
+both
+.I th
+and
+.I he .
+Assuming a two-dimensional array named
+.ul
+digram
+to be incremented, the appropriate
+source is
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%%
+[a\-z][a\-z]	{digram[yytext[0]][yytext[1]]++; REJECT;}
+.	;
+\en	;
+.TE
+where the REJECT is necessary to pick up
+a letter pair beginning at every character, rather than at every
+other character.
+.2C
+.NH
+Lex Source Definitions.
+.PP
+Remember the format of the Lex
+source:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+{definitions}
+%%
+{rules}
+%%
+{user routines}
+.TE
+So far only the rules have been described.  The user needs
+additional options,
+though, to define variables for use in his program and for use
+by Lex.
+These can go either in the definitions section
+or in the rules section.
+.PP
+Remember that Lex is turning the rules into a program.
+Any source not intercepted by Lex is copied
+into the generated program.  There are three classes
+of such things.
+.IP 1)
+Any line which is not part of a Lex rule or action
+which begins with a blank or tab is copied into
+the Lex generated program.
+Such source input prior to the first %% delimiter will be external
+to any function in the code; if it appears immediately after the first
+%%,
+it appears in an appropriate place for declarations
+in the function written by Lex which contains the actions.
+This material must look like program fragments,
+and should precede the first Lex rule.
+.IP
+As a side effect of the above, lines which begin with a blank
+or tab, and which contain a comment,
+are passed through to the generated program.
+This can be used to include comments in either the Lex source or
+the generated code.  The comments should follow the host
+language convention.
+.IP 2)
+Anything included between lines containing
+only
+.I %{
+and
+.I %}
+is
+copied out as above.  The delimiters are discarded.
+This format permits entering text like preprocessor statements that
+must begin in column 1,
+or copying lines that do not look like programs.
+.IP 3)
+Anything after the third %% delimiter, regardless of formats, etc.,
+is copied out after the Lex output.
+.PP
+Definitions intended for Lex are given
+before the first %% delimiter.  Any line in this section
+not contained between %{ and %}, and begining
+in column 1, is assumed to define Lex substitution strings.
+The format of such lines is
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+name translation
+.TE
+and it
+causes the string given as a translation to
+be associated with the name.
+The name and translation
+must be separated by at least one blank or tab, and the name must begin with a letter.
+The translation can then be called out
+by the {name} syntax in a rule.
+Using {D} for the digits and {E} for an exponent field,
+for example, might abbreviate rules to recognize numbers:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+D	[0\-9]
+E	[DEde][\-+]?{D}+
+%%
+{D}+	printf("integer");
+{D}+"."{D}\(**({E})?	|
+{D}\(**"."{D}+({E})?	|
+{D}+{E}		printf("real");
+.TE
+Note the first two rules for real numbers;
+both require a decimal point and contain
+an optional exponent field,
+but the first requires at least one digit before the
+decimal point and the second requires at least one
+digit after the decimal point.
+To correctly handle the problem
+posed by a Fortran expression such as
+.I 35.EQ.I ,
+which does not contain a real number, a context-sensitive
+rule such as
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+[0\-9]+/"."EQ	printf("integer");
+.TE
+could be used in addition to the normal rule for integers.
+.PP
+The definitions
+section may also contain other commands, including the
+selection of a host language, a character set table,
+a list of start conditions, or adjustments to the default
+size of arrays within Lex itself for larger source programs.
+These possibilities
+are discussed below under ``Summary of Source Format,''
+section 12.
+.2C
+.NH
+Usage.
+.PP
+There are two steps in
+compiling a Lex source program.
+First, the Lex source must be turned into a generated program
+in the host general purpose language.
+Then this program must be compiled and loaded, usually with
+a library of Lex subroutines.
+The generated program
+is on a file named
+.I lex.yy.c .
+The I/O library is defined in terms of the C standard
+library [6].
+.PP
+The C programs generated by Lex are slightly different
+on OS/370, because the
+OS compiler is less powerful than the UNIX or GCOS compilers,
+and does less at compile time.
+C programs generated on GCOS and UNIX are the same.
+.PP
+.I
+UNIX.
+.R
+The library is accessed by the loader flag
+.I \-ll .
+So an appropriate
+set of commands is
+.KS
+.in 5
+lex source
+cc lex.yy.c \-ll
+.in 0
+.KE
+The resulting program is placed on the usual file
+.I
+a.out
+.R
+for later execution.
+To use Lex with Yacc see below.
+Although the default Lex I/O routines use the C standard library,
+the Lex automata themselves do not do so;
+if private versions of
+.I
+input,
+output
+.R
+and
+.I unput
+are given, the library can be avoided.
+.PP
+.2C
+.NH
+Lex and Yacc.
+.PP
+If you want to use Lex with Yacc, note that what Lex writes is a program
+named
+.I
+yylex(),
+.R
+the name required by Yacc for its analyzer.
+Normally, the default main program on the Lex library
+calls this routine, but if Yacc is loaded, and its main
+program is used, Yacc will call
+.I
+yylex().
+.R
+In this case each Lex rule should end with
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+return(token);
+.TE
+where the appropriate token value is returned.
+An easy way to get access
+to Yacc's names for tokens is to
+compile the Lex output file as part of
+the Yacc output file by placing the line
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+# include "lex.yy.c"
+.TE
+in the last section of Yacc input.
+Supposing the grammar to be
+named ``good'' and the lexical rules to be named ``better''
+the UNIX command sequence can just be:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+yacc good
+lex better
+cc y.tab.c \-ly \-ll
+.TE
+The Yacc library (\-ly) should be loaded before the Lex library,
+to obtain a main program which invokes the Yacc parser.
+The generations of Lex and Yacc programs can be done in
+either order.
+.2C
+.NH
+Examples.
+.PP
+As a trivial problem, consider copying an input file while
+adding 3 to every positive number divisible by 7.
+Here is a suitable Lex source program
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%%
+	int k;
+[0\-9]+	{
+	k = atoi(yytext);
+	if (k%7 == 0)
+	     printf("%d", k+3);
+	else
+	     printf("%d",k);
+	}
+.TE
+to do just that.
+The rule [0\-9]+ recognizes strings of digits;
+.I
+atoi
+.R
+converts the digits to binary
+and stores the result in
+.ul
+k.
+The operator % (remainder) is used to check whether
+.ul
+k
+is divisible by 7; if it is,
+it is incremented by 3 as it is written out.
+It may be objected that this program will alter such
+input items as
+.I 49.63
+or
+.I X7 .
+Furthermore, it increments the absolute value
+of all negative numbers divisible by 7.
+To avoid this, just add a few more rules after the active one,
+as here:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%%
+	int k;
+\-?[0\-9]+	{
+	k = atoi(yytext);
+	printf("%d", k%7 == 0 ? k+3 : k);
+	}
+\-?[0\-9.]+	ECHO;
+[A-Za-z][A-Za-z0-9]+	ECHO;
+.TE
+Numerical strings containing
+a ``.'' or preceded by a letter will be picked up by
+one of the last two rules, and not changed.
+The
+.I if\-else
+has been replaced by
+a C conditional expression to save space;
+the form
+.ul
+a?b:c
+means ``if
+.I a
+then
+.I b
+else
+.I c ''.
+.PP
+For an example of statistics gathering, here
+is a program which histograms the lengths
+of words, where a word is defined as a string of letters.
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+	int lengs[100];
+%%
+[a\-z]+	lengs[yyleng]++;
+\&.	|
+\en	;
+%%
+.T&
+l s.
+yywrap()
+{
+int i;
+printf("Length  No. words\en");
+for(i=0; i<100; i++)
+     if (lengs[i] > 0)
+          printf("%5d%10d\en",i,lengs[i]);
+return(1);
+}
+.TE
+This program
+accumulates the histogram, while producing no output.  At the end
+of the input it prints the table.
+The final statement
+.I
+return(1);
+.R
+indicates that Lex is to perform wrapup.  If
+.I
+yywrap
+.R
+returns zero (false)
+it implies that further input is available
+and the program is
+to continue reading and processing.
+To provide a
+.I
+yywrap
+.R
+that never
+returns true causes an infinite loop.
+.PP
+As a larger example,
+here are some parts of a program written by N. L. Schryer
+to convert double precision Fortran to single precision Fortran.
+Because Fortran does not distinguish upper and lower case letters,
+this routine begins by defining a set of classes including
+both cases of each letter:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+a	[aA]
+b	[bB]
+c	[cC]
+\&...
+z	[zZ]
+.TE
+An additional class recognizes white space:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+W	[ \et]\(**
+.TE
+The first rule changes
+``double precision'' to ``real'', or ``DOUBLE PRECISION'' to ``REAL''.
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+{d}{o}{u}{b}{l}{e}{W}{p}{r}{e}{c}{i}{s}{i}{o}{n} {
+     printf(yytext[0]==\(fmd\(fm? "real" : "REAL");
+     }
+.TE
+Care is taken throughout this program to preserve the case
+(upper or lower)
+of the original program.
+The conditional operator is used to
+select the proper form of the keyword.
+The next rule copies continuation card indications to
+avoid confusing them with constants:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+^"     "[^ 0]	ECHO;
+.TE
+In the regular expression, the quotes surround the
+blanks.
+It is interpreted as
+``beginning of line, then five blanks, then
+anything but blank or zero.'' 
+Note the two different meanings of
+.I ^ .
+There follow some rules to change double precision
+constants to ordinary floating constants.
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+[0\-9]+{W}{d}{W}[+\-]?{W}[0\-9]+     |
+[0\-9]+{W}"."{W}{d}{W}[+\-]?{W}[0\-9]+     |
+"."{W}[0\-9]+{W}{d}{W}[+\-]?{W}[0\-9]+     {
+     /\(** convert constants \(**/
+     for(p=yytext; \(**p != 0; p++)
+          {
+          if (\(**p == \(fmd\(fm || \(**p == \(fmD\(fm)
+               \(**p=+ \(fme\(fm\- \(fmd\(fm;
+          ECHO;
+          }
+.TE
+After the floating point constant is recognized, it is
+scanned by the
+.ul
+for
+loop
+to find the letter
+.I d
+or
+.I D .
+The program than adds
+.c
+.I \(fme\(fm\-\(fmd\(fm ,
+which converts
+it to the next letter of the alphabet.
+The modified constant, now single-precision,
+is written out again.
+There follow a series of names which must be respelled to remove
+their initial \fId\fR.
+By using the
+array
+.I
+yytext
+.R
+the same action suffices for all the names (only a sample of
+a rather long list is given here).
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+{d}{s}{i}{n}	|
+{d}{c}{o}{s}	|
+{d}{s}{q}{r}{t}	|
+{d}{a}{t}{a}{n}	|
+\&...
+{d}{f}{l}{o}{a}{t}	printf("%s",yytext+1);
+.TE
+Another list of names must have initial \fId\fR changed to initial \fIa\fR:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+{d}{l}{o}{g}	|
+{d}{l}{o}{g}10	|
+{d}{m}{i}{n}1	|
+{d}{m}{a}{x}1	{
+	yytext[0] =+ \(fma\(fm \- \(fmd\(fm;
+	ECHO;
+	}
+.TE
+And one routine
+must have initial \fId\fR changed to initial \fIr\fR:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+{d}1{m}{a}{c}{h}	{yytext[0] =+ \(fmr\(fm  \- \(fmd\(fm;
+		ECHO;
+		}
+.TE
+To avoid such names as \fIdsinx\fR being detected as instances
+of \fIdsin\fR, some final rules pick up longer words as identifiers
+and copy some surviving characters:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+[A\-Za\-z][A\-Za\-z0\-9]\(**	|
+[0\-9]+	|
+\en	|
+\&.	ECHO;
+.TE
+Note that this program is not complete; it
+does not deal with the spacing problems in Fortran or
+with the use of keywords as identifiers.
+.br
+.2C
+.NH
+Left Context Sensitivity.
+.PP
+Sometimes
+it is desirable to have several sets of lexical rules
+to be applied at different times in the input.
+For example, a compiler preprocessor might distinguish
+preprocessor statements and analyze them differently
+from ordinary statements.
+This requires
+sensitivity
+to prior context, and there are several ways of handling
+such problems.
+The \fI^\fR operator, for example, is a prior context operator,
+recognizing immediately preceding left context just as \fI$\fR recognizes
+immediately following right context.
+Adjacent left context could be extended, to produce a facility similar to
+that for adjacent right context, but it is unlikely
+to be as useful, since often the relevant left context
+appeared some time earlier, such as at the beginning of a line.
+.PP
+This section describes three means of dealing
+with different environments: a simple use of flags,
+when only a few rules change from one environment to another,
+the use of
+.I
+start conditions
+.R
+on rules,
+and the possibility of making multiple lexical analyzers all run
+together.
+In each case, there are rules which recognize the need to change the
+environment in which the
+following input text is analyzed, and set some parameter
+to reflect the change.  This may be a flag explicitly tested by
+the user's action code; such a flag is the simplest way of dealing
+with the problem, since Lex is not involved at all.
+It may be more convenient,
+however,
+to have Lex remember the flags as initial conditions on the rules.
+Any rule may be associated with a start condition.  It will only
+be recognized when Lex is in
+that start condition.
+The current start condition may be changed at any time.
+Finally, if the sets of rules for the different environments
+are very dissimilar,
+clarity may be best achieved by writing several distinct lexical
+analyzers, and switching from one to another as desired.
+.PP
+Consider the following problem: copy the input to the output,
+changing the word \fImagic\fR to \fIfirst\fR on every line which began
+with the letter \fIa\fR, changing \fImagic\fR to \fIsecond\fR on every line
+which began with the letter \fIb\fR, and changing
+\fImagic\fR to \fIthird\fR on every line which began
+with the letter \fIc\fR.  All other words and all other lines
+are left unchanged.
+.PP
+These rules are so simple that the easiest way
+to do this job is with a flag:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+	int flag;
+%%
+^a	{flag = \(fma\(fm; ECHO;}
+^b	{flag = \(fmb\(fm; ECHO;}
+^c	{flag = \(fmc\(fm; ECHO;}
+\en	{flag =  0 ; ECHO;}
+magic	{
+	switch (flag)
+	{
+	case \(fma\(fm: printf("first"); break;
+	case \(fmb\(fm: printf("second"); break;
+	case \(fmc\(fm: printf("third"); break;
+	default: ECHO; break;
+	}
+	}
+.TE
+should be adequate.
+.PP
+To handle the same problem with start conditions, each
+start condition must be introduced to Lex in the definitions section
+with a line reading
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%Start	name1 name2 ...
+.TE
+where the conditions may be named in any order.
+The word \fIStart\fR may be abbreviated to \fIs\fR or \fIS\fR.
+The conditions may be referenced at the
+head of a rule with the <> brackets:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+<name1>expression
+.TE
+is a rule which is only recognized when Lex is in the
+start condition \fIname1\fR.
+To enter a start condition,
+execute the action statement
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+BEGIN name1;
+.TE
+which changes the start condition to \fIname1\fR.
+To resume the normal state,
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+BEGIN 0;
+.TE
+resets the initial condition
+of the Lex automaton interpreter.
+A rule may be active in several
+start conditions:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+<name1,name2,name3>
+.TE
+is a legal prefix.  Any rule not beginning with the
+<> prefix operator is always active.
+.PP
+The same example as before can be written:
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%START AA BB CC
+%%
+^a	{ECHO; BEGIN AA;}
+^b	{ECHO; BEGIN BB;}
+^c	{ECHO; BEGIN CC;}
+\en	{ECHO; BEGIN 0;}
+<AA>magic	printf("first");
+<BB>magic	printf("second");
+<CC>magic	printf("third");
+.TE
+where the logic is exactly the same as in the previous
+method of handling the problem, but Lex does the work
+rather than the user's code.
+.2C
+.NH
+Character Set.
+.PP
+The programs generated by Lex handle
+character I/O only through the routines
+.I
+input,
+output,
+.R
+and
+.I
+unput.
+.R
+Thus the character representation
+provided in these routines
+is accepted by Lex and employed to return
+values in
+.I
+yytext.
+.R
+For internal use
+a character is represented as a small integer
+which, if the standard library is used,
+has a value equal to the integer value of the bit
+pattern representing the character on the host computer.
+Normally, the letter
+.I a
+is represented as the same form as the character constant
+.I \(fma\(fm .
+If this interpretation is changed, by providing I/O
+routines which translate the characters,
+Lex must be told about
+it, by giving a translation table.
+This table must be in the definitions section,
+and must be bracketed by lines containing  only
+``%T''.
+The table contains lines of the form
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+{integer} {character string}
+.TE
+which indicate the value associated with each character.
+Thus the next example
+.GS 2
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+%T
+ 1	Aa
+ 2	Bb
+\&...
+26	Zz
+27	\en
+28	+
+29	\-
+30	0
+31	1
+\&...
+39	9
+%T
+.TE
+.sp
+.ce 1
+Sample character table.
+.GE
+maps the lower and upper case letters together into the integers 1 through 26,
+newline into 27, + and \- into 28 and 29, and the
+digits into 30 through 39.
+Note the escape for newline.
+If a table is supplied, every character that is to appear either
+in the rules or in any valid input must be included
+in the table.
+No character
+may be assigned the number 0, and no character may be
+assigned a bigger number than the size of the hardware character set.
+.2C
+.NH
+Summary of Source Format.
+.PP
+The general form of a Lex source file is:
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+{definitions}
+%%
+{rules}
+%%
+{user subroutines}
+.TE
+The definitions section contains
+a combination of
+.IP 1)
+Definitions, in the form ``name space translation''.
+.IP 2)
+Included code, in the form ``space code''.
+.IP 3)
+Included code, in the form
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+%{
+code
+%}
+.TE
+.ns
+.IP 4)
+Start conditions, given in the form
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+%S name1 name2 ...
+.TE
+.ns
+.IP 5)
+Character set tables, in the form
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+%T
+number space character-string
+\&...
+%T
+.TE
+.ns
+.IP 6)
+Changes to internal array sizes, in the form
+.TS
+center;
+l.
+%\fIx\fR\0\0\fInnn\fR
+.TE
+where \fInnn\fR is a decimal integer representing an array size
+and \fIx\fR selects the parameter as follows:
+.TS
+center;
+c c
+c l.
+Letter	Parameter
+p	positions
+n	states
+e	tree nodes
+a	transitions
+k	packed character classes
+o	output array size
+.TE
+.LP
+Lines in the rules section have the form ``expression  action''
+where the action may be continued on succeeding
+lines by using braces to delimit it.
+.PP
+Regular expressions in Lex use the following
+operators:
+.br
+.TS
+center;
+l l.
+x	the character "x"
+"x"	an "x", even if x is an operator.
+\ex	an "x", even if x is an operator.
+[xy]	the character x or y.
+[x\-z]	the characters x, y or z.
+[^x]	any character but x.
+\&.	any character but newline.
+^x	an x at the beginning of a line.
+<y>x	an x when Lex is in start condition y.
+x$	an x at the end of a line.
+x?	an optional x.
+x\(**	0,1,2, ... instances of x.
+x+	1,2,3, ... instances of x.
+x|y	an x or a y.
+(x)	an x.
+x/y	an x but only if followed by y.
+{xx}	the translation of xx from the definitions section.
+x{m,n}	\fIm\fR through \fIn\fR occurrences of x
+.TE
+.NH
+Caveats and Bugs.
+.PP
+There are pathological expressions which
+produce exponential growth of the tables when
+converted to deterministic machines;
+fortunately, they are rare.
+.PP
+REJECT does not rescan the input; instead it remembers the results of the previous
+scan.  This means that if a rule with trailing context is found, and
+REJECT executed, the user
+must not have used
+.ul
+unput
+to change the characters forthcoming
+from the input stream.
+This is the only restriction on the user's ability to manipulate
+the not-yet-processed input.
+.PP
+.2C
+.NH
+Acknowledgments.
+.PP
+As should
+be obvious from the above, the outside of Lex
+is patterned
+on Yacc and the inside on Aho's string matching routines.
+Therefore, both S. C. Johnson and A. V. Aho
+are really originators
+of much of Lex,
+as well as debuggers of it.
+Many thanks are due to both.
+.PP
+The code of the current version of Lex was designed, written,
+and debugged by Eric Schmidt.
+.SG MH-1274-MEL-unix
+.sp 1
+.2C
+.NH
+References.
+.SP 1v
+.IP 1.
+B. W. Kernighan and D. M. Ritchie,
+.I
+The C Programming Language,
+.R
+Prentice-Hall, N. J. (1978).
+.IP 2.
+B. W. Kernighan,
+.I
+Ratfor: A Preprocessor for a Rational Fortran,
+.R
+Software \- Practice and Experience,
+\fB5\fR, pp. 395-496 (1975).
+.IP 3.
+S. C. Johnson,
+.I
+Yacc: Yet Another Compiler Compiler,
+.R
+Computing Science Technical Report No. 32,
+1975,
+.MH
+.if \n(tm (also TM 75-1273-6)
+.IP 4.
+A. V. Aho and M. J. Corasick,
+.I
+Efficient String Matching: An Aid to Bibliographic Search,
+.R
+Comm. ACM
+.B
+18,
+.R
+333-340 (1975).
+.IP 5.
+B. W. Kernighan, D. M. Ritchie and K. L. Thompson,
+.I
+QED Text Editor,
+.R
+Computing Science Technical Report No. 5,
+1972,
+.MH
+.IP 6.
+D. M. Ritchie,
+private communication.
+See also
+M. E. Lesk,
+.I
+The Portable C Library,
+.R
+Computing Science Technical Report No. 31,
+.MH
+.if \n(tm (also TM 75-1274-11)
diff --git a/usr/doc/lint b/usr/doc/lint
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..d1f5819ad7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/lint
@@ -0,0 +1,1063 @@
+.RP
+.ND "July 26, 1978"
+.OK
+Program Portability
+Strong Type Checking
+.TL
+Lint, a C Program Checker
+.AU "MH 2C-559" 3968
+S. C. Johnson
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+.PP
+.I Lint
+is a command which examines C source programs,
+detecting
+a number of bugs and obscurities.
+It enforces the type rules of C more strictly than
+the C compilers.
+It may also be used to enforce a number of portability
+restrictions involved in moving
+programs between different machines and/or operating systems.
+Another option detects a number of wasteful, or error prone, constructions
+which nevertheless are, strictly speaking, legal.
+.PP
+.I Lint
+accepts multiple input files and library specifications, and checks them for consistency.
+.PP
+The separation of function between
+.I lint
+and the C compilers has both historical and practical
+rationale.
+The compilers turn C programs into executable files rapidly
+and efficiently.
+This is possible in part because the
+compilers do not do sophisticated
+type checking, especially between
+separately compiled programs.
+.I Lint
+takes a more global, leisurely view of the program,
+looking much more carefully at the compatibilities.
+.PP
+This document discusses the use of
+.I lint ,
+gives an overview of the implementation, and gives some hints on the
+writing of machine independent C code.
+.AE
+.CS 10 2 12 0 0 5
+.SH
+Introduction and Usage
+.PP
+Suppose there are two C
+.[
+Kernighan Ritchie Programming Prentice 1978
+.]
+source files,
+.I file1. c
+and
+.I file2.c  ,
+which are ordinarily compiled and loaded together.
+Then the command
+.DS
+lint  file1.c  file2.c
+.DE
+produces messages describing inconsistencies and inefficiencies
+in the programs.
+The program enforces the typing rules of C
+more strictly than the C compilers
+(for both historical and practical reasons)
+enforce them.
+The command
+.DS
+lint  \-p  file1.c  file2.c
+.DE
+will produce, in addition to the above messages, additional messages
+which relate to the portability of the programs to other operating
+systems and machines.
+Replacing the
+.B \-p
+by
+.B \-h
+will produce messages about various error-prone or wasteful constructions
+which, strictly speaking, are not bugs.
+Saying
+.B \-hp
+gets the whole works.
+.PP
+The next several sections describe the major messages;
+the document closes with sections
+discussing the implementation and giving suggestions
+for writing portable C.
+An appendix gives a summary of the
+.I lint
+options.
+.SH
+A Word About Philosophy
+.PP
+Many of the facts which
+.I lint
+needs may be impossible to
+discover.
+For example, whether a given function in a program ever gets called
+may depend on the input data.
+Deciding whether
+.I exit
+is ever called is equivalent to solving the famous ``halting problem,'' known to be
+recursively undecidable.
+.PP
+Thus, most of the
+.I lint
+algorithms are a compromise.
+If a function is never mentioned, it can never be called.
+If a function is mentioned,
+.I lint
+assumes it can be called; this is not necessarily so, but in practice is quite reasonable.
+.PP
+.I Lint
+tries to give information with a high degree of relevance.
+Messages of the form ``\fIxxx\fR might be a bug''
+are easy to generate, but are acceptable only in proportion
+to the fraction of real bugs they uncover.
+If this fraction of real bugs is too small, the messages lose their credibility
+and serve merely to clutter up the output,
+obscuring the more important messages.
+.PP
+Keeping these issues in mind, we now consider in more detail
+the classes of messages which
+.I lint
+produces.
+.SH
+Unused Variables and Functions
+.PP
+As sets of programs evolve and develop,
+previously used variables and arguments to
+functions may become unused;
+it is not uncommon for external variables, or even entire
+functions, to become unnecessary, and yet
+not be removed from the source.
+These ``errors of commission'' rarely cause working programs to fail, but they are a source
+of inefficiency, and make programs harder to understand
+and change.
+Moreover, information about such unused variables and functions can occasionally
+serve to discover bugs; if a function does a necessary job, and
+is never called, something is wrong!
+.PP
+.I Lint
+complains about variables and functions which are defined but not otherwise
+mentioned.
+An exception is variables which are declared through explicit
+.B extern
+statements but are never referenced; thus the statement
+.DS
+extern  float  sin(\|);
+.DE
+will evoke no comment if
+.I sin
+is never used.
+Note that this agrees with the semantics of the C compiler.
+In some cases, these unused external declarations might be of some interest; they
+can be discovered by adding the
+.B \-x
+flag to the
+.I lint
+invocation.
+.PP
+Certain styles of programming
+require many functions to be written with similar interfaces;
+frequently, some of the arguments may be unused
+in many of the calls.
+The
+.B \-v
+option is available to suppress the printing of
+complaints about unused arguments.
+When
+.B \-v
+is in effect, no messages are produced about unused
+arguments except for those
+arguments which are unused and also declared as
+register arguments; this can be considered
+an active (and preventable) waste of the register
+resources of the machine.
+.PP
+There is one case where information about unused, or
+undefined, variables is more distracting
+than helpful.
+This is when
+.I lint
+is applied to some, but not all, files out of a collection
+which are to be loaded together.
+In this case, many of the functions and variables defined
+may not be used, and, conversely,
+many functions and variables defined elsewhere may be used.
+The
+.B \-u
+flag may be used to suppress the spurious messages which might otherwise appear.
+.SH
+Set/Used Information
+.PP
+.I Lint
+attempts to detect cases where a variable is used before it is set.
+This is very difficult to do well;
+many algorithms take a good deal of time and space,
+and still produce messages about perfectly valid programs.
+.I Lint
+detects local variables (automatic and register storage classes)
+whose first use appears physically earlier in the input file than the first assignment to the variable.
+It assumes that taking the address of a variable constitutes a ``use,'' since the actual use
+may occur at any later time, in a data dependent fashion.
+.PP
+The restriction to the physical appearance of variables in the file makes the
+algorithm very simple and quick to implement,
+since the true flow of control need not be discovered.
+It does mean that
+.I lint
+can complain about some programs which are legal,
+but these programs would probably be considered bad on stylistic grounds (e.g. might
+contain at least two \fBgoto\fR's).
+Because static and external variables are initialized to 0,
+no meaningful information can be discovered about their uses.
+The algorithm deals correctly, however, with initialized automatic variables, and variables
+which are used in the expression which first sets them.
+.PP
+The set/used information also permits recognition of those local variables which are set
+and never used; these form a frequent source of inefficiencies, and may also be symptomatic of bugs.
+.SH
+Flow of Control
+.PP
+.I Lint
+attempts to detect unreachable portions of the programs which it processes.
+It will complain about unlabeled statements immediately following
+\fBgoto\fR, \fBbreak\fR, \fBcontinue\fR, or \fBreturn\fR statements.
+An attempt is made to detect loops which can never be left at the bottom, detecting the
+special cases
+\fBwhile\fR( 1 ) and \fBfor\fR(;;) as infinite loops.
+.I Lint
+also complains about loops which cannot be entered at the top;
+some valid programs may have such loops, but at best they are bad style,
+at worst bugs.
+.PP
+.I Lint
+has an important area of blindness in the flow of control algorithm:
+it has no way of detecting functions which are called and never return.
+Thus, a call to
+.I exit
+may cause unreachable code which
+.I lint
+does not detect; the most serious effects of this are in the
+determination of returned function values (see the next section).
+.PP
+One form of unreachable statement is not usually complained about by
+.I lint;
+a
+.B break
+statement that cannot be reached causes no message.
+Programs generated by
+.I yacc ,
+.[
+Johnson Yacc 1975
+.]
+and especially
+.I lex ,
+.[
+Lesk Lex
+.]
+may have literally hundreds of unreachable
+.B break
+statements.
+The
+.B \-O
+flag in the C compiler will often eliminate the resulting object code inefficiency.
+Thus, these unreached statements are of little importance,
+there is typically nothing the user can do about them, and the
+resulting messages would clutter up the
+.I lint
+output.
+If these messages are desired,
+.I lint
+can be invoked with the
+.B \-b
+option.
+.SH
+Function Values
+.PP
+Sometimes functions return values which are never used;
+sometimes programs incorrectly use function ``values''
+which have never been returned.
+.I Lint
+addresses this problem in a number of ways.
+.PP
+Locally, within a function definition,
+the appearance of both
+.DS
+return(  \fIexpr\fR  );
+.DE
+and
+.DS
+return ;
+.DE
+statements is cause for alarm;
+.I lint
+will give the message
+.DS
+function \fIname\fR contains return(e) and return
+.DE
+The most serious difficulty with this is detecting when a function return is implied
+by flow of control reaching the end of the function.
+This can be seen with a simple example:
+.DS
+.ta .5i 1i 1.5i
+\fRf ( a ) {
+	if ( a ) return ( 3 );
+	g (\|);
+	}
+.DE
+Notice that, if \fIa\fR tests false, \fIf\fR will call \fIg\fR and then return
+with no defined return value; this will trigger a complaint from
+.I lint .
+If \fIg\fR, like \fIexit\fR, never returns,
+the message will still be produced when in fact nothing is wrong.
+.PP
+In practice, some potentially serious bugs have been discovered by this feature;
+it also accounts for a substantial fraction of the ``noise'' messages produced
+by
+.I lint .
+.PP
+On a global scale,
+.I lint
+detects cases where a function returns a value, but this value is sometimes,
+or always, unused.
+When the value is always unused, it may constitute an inefficiency in the function definition.
+When the value is sometimes unused, it may represent bad style (e.g., not testing for
+error conditions).
+.PP
+The dual problem, using a function value when the function does not return one,
+is also detected.
+This is a serious problem.
+Amazingly, this bug has been observed on a couple of occasions
+in ``working'' programs; the desired function value just happened to have been computed
+in the function return register!
+.SH
+Type Checking
+.PP
+.I Lint
+enforces the type checking rules of C more strictly than the compilers do.
+The additional checking is in four major areas:
+across certain binary operators and implied assignments,
+at the structure selection operators,
+between the definition and uses of functions,
+and in the use of enumerations.
+.PP
+There are a number of operators which have an implied balancing between types of the operands.
+The assignment, conditional ( ?\|: ), and relational operators
+have this property; the argument
+of a \fBreturn\fR statement,
+and expressions used in initialization also suffer similar conversions.
+In these operations,
+\fBchar\fR, \fBshort\fR, \fBint\fR, \fBlong\fR, \fBunsigned\fR, \fBfloat\fR, and \fBdouble\fR types may be freely intermixed.
+The types of pointers must agree exactly,
+except that arrays of \fIx\fR's can, of course, be intermixed with pointers to \fIx\fR's.
+.PP
+The type checking rules also require that, in structure references, the
+left operand of the \(em> be a pointer to structure, the left operand of the \fB.\fR
+be a structure, and the right operand of these operators be a member
+of the structure implied by the left operand.
+Similar checking is done for references to unions.
+.PP
+Strict rules apply to function argument and return value
+matching.
+The types \fBfloat\fR and \fBdouble\fR may be freely matched,
+as may the types \fBchar\fR, \fBshort\fR, \fBint\fR, and \fBunsigned\fR.
+Also, pointers can be matched with the associated arrays.
+Aside from this, all actual arguments must agree in type with their declared counterparts.
+.PP
+With enumerations, checks are made that enumeration variables or members are not mixed
+with other types, or other enumerations,
+and that the only operations applied are =, initialization, ==, !=, and function arguments and return values.
+.SH
+Type Casts
+.PP
+The type cast feature in C was introduced largely as an aid
+to producing more portable programs.
+Consider the assignment
+.DS
+p = 1 ;
+.DE
+where
+.I p
+is a character pointer.
+.I Lint
+will quite rightly complain.
+Now, consider the assignment
+.DS
+p = (char \(**)1 ;
+.DE
+in which a cast has been used to
+convert the integer to a character pointer.
+The programmer obviously had a strong motivation
+for doing this, and has clearly signaled his intentions.
+It seems harsh for
+.I lint
+to continue to complain about this.
+On the other hand, if this code is moved to another
+machine, such code should be looked at carefully.
+The
+.B \-c
+flag controls the printing of comments about casts.
+When
+.B \-c
+is in effect, casts are treated as though they were assignments
+subject to complaint; otherwise, all legal casts are passed without comment,
+no matter how strange the type mixing seems to be.
+.SH
+Nonportable Character Use
+.PP
+On the PDP-11, characters are signed quantities, with a range
+from \-128 to 127.
+On most of the other C implementations, characters take on only positive
+values.
+Thus,
+.I lint
+will flag certain comparisons and assignments as being
+illegal or nonportable.
+For example, the fragment
+.DS
+char c;
+	...
+if( (c = getchar(\|)) < 0 ) ....
+.DE
+works on the PDP-11, but
+will fail on machines where characters always take
+on positive values.
+The real solution is to declare
+.I c
+an integer, since
+.I getchar
+is actually returning
+integer values.
+In any case,
+.I lint
+will say
+``nonportable character comparison''.
+.PP
+A similar issue arises with bitfields; when assignments
+of constant values are made to bitfields, the field may
+be too small to hold the value.
+This is especially true because
+on some machines bitfields are considered as signed
+quantities.
+While it may seem unintuitive to consider
+that a two bit field declared of type
+.B int
+cannot hold the value 3, the problem disappears
+if the bitfield is declared to have type
+.B unsigned .
+.SH
+Assignments of longs to ints
+.PP
+Bugs may arise from the assignment of
+.B long
+to
+an
+.B int ,
+which loses accuracy.
+This may happen in programs
+which have been incompletely converted to use
+.B typedefs .
+When a
+.B typedef
+variable
+is changed from \fBint\fR to \fBlong\fR,
+the program can stop working because
+some intermediate results may be assigned
+to \fBints\fR, losing accuracy.
+Since there are a number of legitimate reasons for
+assigning \fBlongs\fR to \fBints\fR, the detection
+of these assignments is enabled
+by the
+.B \-a
+flag.
+.SH
+Strange Constructions
+.PP
+Several perfectly legal, but somewhat strange, constructions
+are flagged by
+.I lint;
+the messages hopefully encourage better code quality, clearer style, and
+may even point out bugs.
+The
+.B \-h
+flag is used to enable these checks.
+For example, in the statement
+.DS
+\(**p++ ;
+.DE
+the \(** does nothing; this provokes the message ``null effect'' from
+.I lint .
+The program fragment
+.DS
+unsigned x ;
+if( x < 0 ) ...
+.DE
+is clearly somewhat strange; the
+test will never succeed.
+Similarly, the test
+.DS
+if( x > 0 ) ...
+.DE
+is equivalent to
+.DS
+if( x != 0 )
+.DE
+which may not be the intended action.
+.I Lint
+will say ``degenerate unsigned comparison'' in these cases.
+If one says
+.DS
+if( 1 != 0 ) ....
+.DE
+.I lint
+will report
+``constant in conditional context'', since the comparison
+of 1 with 0 gives a constant result.
+.PP
+Another construction
+detected by
+.I lint
+involves
+operator precedence.
+Bugs which arise from misunderstandings about the precedence
+of operators can be accentuated by spacing and formatting,
+making such bugs extremely hard to find.
+For example, the statements
+.DS
+if( x&077 == 0 ) ...
+.DE
+or
+.DS
+x<\h'-.3m'<2 + 40
+.DE
+probably do not do what was intended.
+The best solution is to parenthesize such expressions,
+and
+.I lint
+encourages this by an appropriate message.
+.PP
+Finally, when the
+.B \-h
+flag is in force
+.I lint
+complains about variables which are redeclared in inner blocks
+in a way that conflicts with their use in outer blocks.
+This is legal, but is considered by many (including the author) to
+be bad style, usually unnecessary, and frequently a bug.
+.SH
+Ancient History
+.PP
+There are several forms of older syntax which are being officially
+discouraged.
+These fall into two classes, assignment operators and initialization.
+.PP
+The older forms of assignment operators (e.g., =+, =\-, . . . )
+could cause ambiguous expressions, such as
+.DS
+a  =\-1 ;
+.DE
+which could be taken as either
+.DS
+a =\-  1 ;
+.DE
+or
+.DS
+a  =  \-1 ;
+.DE
+The situation is especially perplexing if this
+kind of ambiguity arises as the result of a macro substitution.
+The newer, and preferred operators (+=, \-=, etc. )
+have no such ambiguities.
+To spur the abandonment of the older forms,
+.I lint
+complains about these old fashioned operators.
+.PP
+A similar issue arises with initialization.
+The older language allowed
+.DS
+int  x  \fR1 ;
+.DE
+to initialize
+.I x
+to 1.
+This also caused syntactic difficulties: for example,
+.DS
+int  x  ( \-1 ) ;
+.DE
+looks somewhat like the beginning of a function declaration:
+.DS
+int  x  ( y ) {  . . .
+.DE
+and the compiler must read a fair ways past
+.I x
+in order to sure what the declaration really is..
+Again, the problem is even more perplexing when the
+initializer involves a macro.
+The current syntax places an equals sign between the
+variable and the initializer:
+.DS
+int  x  =  \-1 ;
+.DE
+This is free of any possible syntactic ambiguity.
+.SH
+Pointer Alignment
+.PP
+Certain pointer assignments may be reasonable on some machines,
+and illegal on others, due entirely to
+alignment restrictions.
+For example, on the PDP-11, it is reasonable
+to assign integer pointers to double pointers, since
+double precision values may begin on any integer boundary.
+On the Honeywell 6000, double precision values must begin
+on even word boundaries;
+thus, not all such assignments make sense.
+.I Lint
+tries to detect cases where pointers are assigned to other
+pointers, and such alignment problems might arise.
+The message ``possible pointer alignment problem''
+results from this situation whenever either the
+.B \-p
+or
+.B \-h
+flags are in effect.
+.SH
+Multiple Uses and Side Effects
+.PP
+In complicated expressions, the best order in which to evaluate
+subexpressions may be highly machine dependent.
+For example, on machines (like the PDP-11) in which the stack
+runs backwards, function arguments will probably be best evaluated
+from right-to-left; on machines with a stack running forward,
+left-to-right seems most attractive.
+Function calls embedded as arguments of other functions
+may or may not be treated similarly to ordinary arguments.
+Similar issues arise with other operators which have side effects,
+such as the assignment operators and the increment and decrement operators.
+.PP
+In order that the efficiency of C on a particular machine not be
+unduly compromised, the C language leaves the order
+of evaluation of complicated expressions up to the
+local compiler, and, in fact, the various C compilers have considerable
+differences in the order in which they will evaluate complicated
+expressions.
+In particular, if any variable is changed by a side effect, and
+also used elsewhere in the same expression, the result is explicitly undefined.
+.PP
+.I Lint
+checks for the important special case where
+a simple scalar variable is affected.
+For example, the statement
+.DS
+\fIa\fR[\fIi\|\fR] = \fIb\fR[\fIi\fR++] ;
+.DE
+will draw the complaint:
+.DS
+warning: \fIi\fR evaluation order undefined
+.DE
+.SH
+Implementation
+.PP
+.I Lint
+consists of two programs and a driver.
+The first program is a version of the
+Portable C Compiler
+.[
+Johnson Ritchie BSTJ Portability Programs System
+.]
+.[
+Johnson portable compiler  1978
+.]
+which is the basis of the
+IBM 370, Honeywell 6000, and Interdata 8/32 C compilers.
+This compiler does lexical and syntax analysis on the input text,
+constructs and maintains symbol tables, and builds trees for expressions.
+Instead of writing an intermediate file which is passed to
+a code generator, as the other compilers
+do,
+.I lint
+produces an intermediate file which consists of lines of ascii text.
+Each line contains an external variable name,
+an encoding of the context in which it was seen (use, definition, declaration, etc.),
+a type specifier, and a source file name and line number.
+The information about variables local to a function or file
+is collected
+by accessing the symbol table, and examining the expression trees.
+.PP
+Comments about local problems are produced as detected.
+The information about external names is collected
+onto an intermediate file.
+After all the source files and library descriptions have
+been collected, the intermediate file is sorted
+to bring all information collected about a given external
+name together.
+The second, rather small, program then reads the lines
+from the intermediate file and compares all of the
+definitions, declarations, and uses for consistency.
+.PP
+The driver controls this
+process, and is also responsible for making the options available
+to both passes of
+.I lint .
+.SH
+Portability
+.PP
+C on the Honeywell and IBM systems is used, in part, to write system code for the host operating system.
+This means that the implementation of C tends to follow local conventions rather than
+adhere strictly to
+.UX
+system conventions.
+Despite these differences, many C programs have been successfully moved to GCOS and the various IBM
+installations with little effort.
+This section describes some of the differences between the implementations, and
+discusses the
+.I lint
+features which encourage portability.
+.PP
+Uninitialized external variables are treated differently in different
+implementations of C.
+Suppose two files both contain a declaration without initialization, such as
+.DS
+int a ;
+.DE
+outside of any function.
+The
+.UX
+loader will resolve these declarations, and cause only a single word of storage
+to be set aside for \fIa\fR.
+Under the GCOS and IBM implementations, this is not feasible (for various stupid reasons!)
+so each such declaration causes a word of storage to be set aside and called \fIa\fR.
+When loading or library editing takes place, this causes fatal conflicts which prevent
+the proper operation of the program.
+If
+.I lint
+is invoked with the \fB\-p\fR flag,
+it will detect such multiple definitions.
+.PP
+A related difficulty comes from the amount of information retained about external names during the
+loading process.
+On the
+.UX
+system, externally known names have seven significant characters, with the upper/lower
+case distinction kept.
+On the IBM systems, there are eight significant characters, but the case distinction
+is lost.
+On GCOS, there are only six characters, of a single case.
+This leads to situations where programs run on the
+.UX
+system, but encounter loader
+problems on the IBM or GCOS systems.
+.I Lint
+.B \-p
+causes all external symbols to be mapped to one case and truncated to six characters,
+providing a worst-case analysis.
+.PP
+A number of differences arise in the area of character handling: characters in the
+.UX
+system are eight bit ascii, while they are eight bit ebcdic on the IBM, and
+nine bit ascii on GCOS.
+Moreover, character strings go from high to low bit positions (``left to right'')
+on GCOS and IBM, and low to high (``right to left'') on the PDP-11.
+This means that code attempting to construct strings
+out of character constants, or attempting to use characters as indices
+into arrays, must be looked at with great suspicion.
+.I Lint
+is of little help here, except to flag multi-character character constants.
+.PP
+Of course, the word sizes are different!
+This causes less trouble than might be expected, at least when
+moving from the
+.UX
+system (16 bit words) to the IBM (32 bits) or GCOS (36 bits).
+The main problems are likely to arise in shifting or masking.
+C now supports a bit-field facility, which can be used to write much of
+this code in a reasonably portable way.
+Frequently, portability of such code can be enhanced by
+slight rearrangements in coding style.
+Many of the incompatibilities seem to have the flavor of writing
+.DS
+x &= 0177700 ;
+.DE
+to clear the low order six bits of \fIx\fR.
+This suffices on the PDP-11, but fails badly on GCOS and IBM.
+If the bit field feature cannot be used, the same effect can be obtained by
+writing
+.DS
+x &= \(ap 077 ;
+.DE
+which will work on all these machines.
+.PP
+The right shift operator is arithmetic shift on the PDP-11, and logical shift on most
+other machines.
+To obtain a logical shift on all machines, the left operand can be
+typed \fBunsigned\fR.
+Characters are considered signed integers on the PDP-11, and unsigned on the other machines.
+This persistence of the sign bit may be reasonably considered a bug in the PDP-11 hardware
+which has infiltrated itself into the C language.
+If there were a good way to discover the programs which would be affected, C could be changed;
+in any case,
+.I lint
+is no help here.
+.PP
+The above discussion may have made the problem of portability seem
+bigger than it in fact is.
+The issues involved here are rarely subtle or mysterious, at least to the
+implementor of the program, although they can involve some work to straighten out.
+The most serious bar to the portability of
+.UX
+system utilities has been the inability to mimic
+essential
+.UX
+system functions on the other systems.
+The inability to seek to a random character position in a text file, or to establish a pipe
+between processes, has involved far more rewriting
+and debugging than any of the differences in C compilers.
+On the other hand,
+.I lint
+has been very helpful
+in moving the
+.UX
+operating system and associated
+utility programs to other machines.
+.SH
+Shutting Lint Up
+.PP
+There are occasions when
+the programmer is smarter than
+.I lint .
+There may be valid reasons for ``illegal'' type casts,
+functions with a variable number of arguments, etc.
+Moreover, as specified above, the flow of control information
+produced by
+.I lint
+often has blind spots, causing occasional spurious
+messages about perfectly reasonable programs.
+Thus, some way of communicating with
+.I lint ,
+typically to shut it up, is desirable.
+.PP
+The form which this mechanism should take is not at all clear.
+New keywords would require current and old compilers to
+recognize these keywords, if only to ignore them.
+This has both philosophical and practical problems.
+New preprocessor syntax suffers from similar problems.
+.PP
+What was finally done was to cause a number of words
+to be recognized by
+.I lint
+when they were embedded in comments.
+This required minimal preprocessor changes;
+the preprocessor just had to agree to pass comments
+through to its output, instead of deleting them
+as had been previously done.
+Thus,
+.I lint
+directives are invisible to the compilers, and
+the effect on systems with the older preprocessors
+is merely that the
+.I lint
+directives don't work.
+.PP
+The first directive is concerned with flow of control information;
+if a particular place in the program cannot be reached,
+but this is not apparent to
+.I lint ,
+this can be asserted by the directive
+.DS
+/* NOTREACHED */
+.DE
+at the appropriate spot in the program.
+Similarly, if it is desired to turn off
+strict type checking for
+the next expression, the directive
+.DS
+/* NOSTRICT */
+.DE
+can be used; the situation reverts to the
+previous default after the next expression.
+The
+.B \-v
+flag can be turned on for one function by the directive
+.DS
+/* ARGSUSED */
+.DE
+Complaints about variable number of arguments in calls to a function
+can be turned off by the directive
+.DS
+/* VARARGS */
+.DE
+preceding the function definition.
+In some cases, it is desirable to check the
+first several arguments, and leave the later arguments unchecked.
+This can be done by following the VARARGS keyword immediately
+with a digit giving the number of arguments which should be checked; thus,
+.DS
+/* VARARGS2 */
+.DE
+will cause the first two arguments to be checked, the others unchecked.
+Finally, the directive
+.DS
+/* LINTLIBRARY */
+.DE
+at the head of a file identifies this file as
+a library declaration file; this topic is worth a
+section by itself.
+.SH
+Library Declaration Files
+.PP
+.I Lint
+accepts certain library directives, such as
+.DS
+\-ly
+.DE
+and tests the source files for compatibility with these libraries.
+This is done by accessing library description files whose
+names are constructed from the library directives.
+These files all begin with the directive
+.DS
+/* LINTLIBRARY */
+.DE
+which is followed by a series of dummy function
+definitions.
+The critical parts of these definitions
+are the declaration of the function return type,
+whether the dummy function returns a value, and
+the number and types of arguments to the function.
+The VARARGS and ARGSUSED directives can
+be used to specify features of the library functions.
+.PP
+.I Lint
+library files are processed almost exactly like ordinary
+source files.
+The only difference is that functions which are defined on a library file,
+but are not used on a source file, draw no complaints.
+.I Lint
+does not simulate a full library search algorithm,
+and complains if the source files contain a redefinition of
+a library routine (this is a feature!).
+.PP
+By default,
+.I lint
+checks the programs it is given against a standard library
+file, which contains descriptions of the programs which
+are normally loaded when
+a C program
+is run.
+When the
+.B -p
+flag is in effect, another file is checked containing
+descriptions of the standard I/O library routines
+which are expected to be portable across various machines.
+The
+.B -n
+flag can be used to suppress all library checking.
+.SH
+Bugs, etc.
+.PP
+.I Lint
+was a difficult program to write, partially
+because it is closely connected with matters of programming style,
+and partially because users usually don't notice bugs which cause
+.I lint
+to miss errors which it should have caught.
+(By contrast, if
+.I lint
+incorrectly complains about something that is correct, the
+programmer reports that immediately!)
+.PP
+A number of areas remain to be further developed.
+The checking of structures and arrays is rather inadequate;
+size
+incompatibilities go unchecked,
+and no attempt is made to match up structure and union
+declarations across files.
+Some stricter checking of the use of the
+.B typedef
+is clearly desirable, but what checking is appropriate, and how
+to carry it out, is still to be determined.
+.PP
+.I Lint
+shares the preprocessor with the C compiler.
+At some point it may be appropriate for a
+special version of the preprocessor to be constructed
+which checks for things such as unused macro definitions,
+macro arguments which have side effects which are
+not expanded at all, or are expanded more than once, etc.
+.PP
+The central problem with
+.I lint
+is the packaging of the information which it collects.
+There are many options which
+serve only to turn off, or slightly modify,
+certain features.
+There are pressures to add even more of these options.
+.PP
+In conclusion, it appears that the general notion of having two
+programs is a good one.
+The compiler concentrates on quickly and accurately turning the
+program text into bits which can be run;
+.I lint
+concentrates on issues
+of portability, style, and efficiency.
+.I Lint
+can afford to be wrong, since incorrectness and over-conservatism
+are merely annoying, not fatal.
+The compiler can be fast since it knows that
+.I lint
+will cover its flanks.
+Finally, the programmer can
+concentrate at one stage
+of the programming process solely on the algorithms,
+data structures, and correctness of the
+program, and then later retrofit,
+with the aid of
+.I lint ,
+the desirable properties of universality and portability.
+.SG MH-1273-SCJ-unix
+.bp
+.[
+$LIST$
+.]
+.bp
+.SH
+Appendix:   Current Lint Options
+.PP
+The command currently has the form
+.DS
+lint\fR [\fB\-\fRoptions ] files... library-descriptors...
+.DE
+The options are
+.IP \fBh\fR
+Perform heuristic checks
+.IP \fBp\fR
+Perform portability checks
+.IP \fBv\fR
+Don't report unused arguments
+.IP \fBu\fR
+Don't report unused or undefined externals
+.IP \fBb\fR
+Report unreachable
+.B break
+statements.
+.IP \fBx\fR
+Report unused external declarations
+.IP \fBa\fR
+Report assignments of
+.B long
+to
+.B int
+or shorter.
+.IP \fBc\fR
+Complain about questionable casts
+.IP \fBn\fR
+No library checking is done
+.IP \fBs\fR
+Same as
+.B h
+(for historical reasons)
diff --git a/usr/doc/m4 b/usr/doc/m4
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..673dccadf8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/m4
@@ -0,0 +1,929 @@
+.if n .ls 2
+.tr _\(em
+.tr *\(**
+.de UC
+\&\\$3\s-1\\$1\\s0\&\\$2
+..
+.de IT
+.if n .ul
+\&\\$3\f2\\$1\fP\&\\$2
+..
+.de UL
+.if n .ul
+\&\\$3\f3\\$1\fP\&\\$2
+..
+.de P1
+.DS I 3n
+.if n .ls 2
+.nf
+.if n .ta 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
+.if t .ta .4i .8i 1.2i 1.6i 2i 2.4i 2.8i 3.2i 3.6i 4i 4.4i 4.8i 5.2i 5.6i
+.if t .tr -\(mi|\(bv'\(fm^\(no*\(**
+.tr `\(ga'\(aa
+.if t .tr _\(ul
+.ft 3
+.lg 0
+..
+.de P2
+.ps \\n(PS
+.vs \\n(VSp
+.ft R
+.if n .ls 2
+.tr --||''^^!!
+.if t .tr _\(em
+.fi
+.lg
+.DE
+.if t .tr _\(em
+..
+.hw semi-colon
+.hw estab-lished
+.hy 14
+.		\"2=not last lines; 4= no -xx; 8=no xx-
+.		\"special chars in programs
+.	\" start of text
+.RP
+.....TR 59
+.....TM 77-1273-6 39199 39199-11
+.ND "July 1, 1977"
+.TL
+The M4 Macro Processor
+.AU "MH 2C-518" 6021
+Brian W. Kernighan
+.AU "MH 2C-517" 3770
+Dennis M. Ritchie
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+.PP
+M4 is a macro processor available on
+.UX
+and
+.UC GCOS .
+Its primary use has been as a
+front end for Ratfor for those
+cases where parameterless macros 
+are not adequately powerful.
+It has also been used for languages as disparate as C and Cobol.
+M4 is particularly suited for functional languages like Fortran, PL/I and C
+since macros are specified in a functional notation.
+.PP
+M4 provides features seldom found even in much larger
+macro processors, 
+including
+.IP "  \(bu"
+arguments
+.IP "  \(bu"
+condition testing
+.IP "  \(bu"
+arithmetic capabilities
+.IP "  \(bu"
+string and substring functions
+.IP "  \(bu"
+file manipulation
+.LP
+.PP
+This paper is a user's manual for M4.
+.AE
+.CS 6 0 6 0 0 1
+.if t .2C
+.SH
+Introduction
+.PP
+A macro processor is a useful way to enhance a programming language,
+to make it more palatable
+or more readable,
+or to tailor it to a particular application.
+The
+.UL #define
+statement in C
+and the analogous
+.UL define
+in Ratfor
+are examples of the basic facility provided by
+any macro processor _
+replacement of text by other text.
+.PP
+The M4 macro processor is an extension of a macro processor called M3
+which was written by D. M. Ritchie
+for the AP-3 minicomputer;
+M3 was in turn based on a macro processor implemented for [1].
+Readers unfamiliar with the basic ideas of macro processing
+may wish to read some of the discussion there.
+.PP
+M4 is a suitable front end for Ratfor and C,
+and has also been used successfully with Cobol.
+Besides the straightforward replacement of one string of text by another,
+it provides
+macros with arguments,
+conditional macro expansion,
+arithmetic,
+file manipulation,
+and some specialized string processing functions.
+.PP
+The basic operation of M4
+is to copy its input to its output.
+As the input is read, however, each alphanumeric ``token''
+(that is, string of letters and digits) is checked.
+If it is the name of a macro,
+then the name of the macro is replaced by its defining text,
+and the resulting string is pushed back onto the
+input to be rescanned.
+Macros may be called with arguments, in which case the arguments are collected
+and substituted into the right places in the defining text
+before it is rescanned.
+.PP
+M4 provides a collection of about twenty built-in
+macros
+which perform various useful operations;
+in addition, the user can define new macros.
+Built-ins and user-defined macros work exactly the same way, except that
+some of the built-in macros have side effects
+on the state of the process.
+.SH
+Usage
+.PP
+On
+.UC UNIX ,
+use
+.P1
+m4 [files]
+.P2
+Each argument file is processed in order;
+if there are no arguments, or if an argument
+is `\-',
+the standard input is read at that point.
+The processed text is written on the standard output,
+which may be captured for subsequent processing with
+.P1
+m4 [files] >outputfile
+.P2
+On
+.UC GCOS ,
+usage is identical, but the program is called
+.UL \&./m4 .
+.SH
+Defining Macros
+.PP
+The primary built-in function of M4
+is
+.UL define ,
+which is used to define new macros.
+The input
+.P1
+define(name, stuff)
+.P2
+causes the string
+.UL name
+to be defined as
+.UL stuff .
+All subsequent occurrences of
+.UL name
+will be replaced by
+.UL stuff .
+.UL name
+must be alphanumeric and must begin with a letter
+(the underscore \(ul counts as a letter).
+.UL stuff
+is any text that contains balanced parentheses;
+it may stretch over multiple lines.
+.PP
+Thus, as a typical example,
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+ ...
+if (i > N)
+.P2
+defines
+.UL N
+to be 100, and uses this ``symbolic constant'' in a later
+.UL if
+statement.
+.PP
+The left parenthesis must immediately follow the word
+.UL define ,
+to signal that
+.UL define
+has arguments.
+If a macro or built-in name is not followed immediately by `(',
+it is assumed to have no arguments.
+This is the situation for
+.UL N
+above;
+it is actually a macro with no arguments,
+and thus when it is used there need be no (...) following it.
+.PP
+You should also notice that a macro name is only recognized as such
+if it appears surrounded by non-alphanumerics.
+For example, in
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+ ...
+if (NNN > 100)
+.P2
+the variable 
+.UL NNN
+is absolutely unrelated to the defined macro
+.UL N ,
+even though it contains a lot of
+.UL N 's.
+.PP
+Things may be defined in terms of other things.
+For example,
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+define(M, N)
+.P2
+defines both M and N to be 100.
+.PP
+What happens if
+.UL N
+is redefined?
+Or, to say it another way, is
+.UL M 
+defined as
+.UL N
+or as 100?
+In M4,
+the latter is true _
+.UL M
+is 100, so even if
+.UL N 
+subsequently changes,
+.UL M
+does not.
+.PP
+This behavior arises because
+M4 expands macro names into their defining text as soon as it possibly can.
+Here, that means that when the string
+.UL N
+is seen as the arguments of
+.UL define
+are being collected, it is immediately replaced by 100;
+it's just as if you had said
+.P1
+define(M, 100)
+.P2
+in the first place.
+.PP
+If this isn't what you really want, there are two ways out of it.
+The first, which is specific to this situation,
+is to interchange the order of the definitions:
+.P1
+define(M, N)
+define(N, 100)
+.P2
+Now
+.UL M
+is defined to be the string
+.UL N ,
+so when you ask for 
+.UL M
+later, you'll always get the value of
+.UL N 
+at that time
+(because the
+.UL M
+will be replaced by
+.UL N
+which will be replaced by 100).
+.SH
+Quoting
+.PP
+The more general solution is to delay the expansion of
+the arguments of
+.UL define 
+by
+.ul
+quoting
+them.
+Any text surrounded by the single quotes \(ga and \(aa
+is not expanded immediately, but has the quotes stripped off.
+If you say
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+define(M, `N')
+.P2
+the quotes around the
+.UL N
+are stripped off as the argument is being collected,
+but they have served their purpose, and 
+.UL M
+is defined as
+the string
+.UL N ,
+not 100.
+The general rule is that M4 always strips off
+one level of single quotes whenever it evaluates
+something.
+This is true even outside of
+macros.
+If you want the word
+.UL define
+to appear in the output,
+you have to quote it in the input,
+as in
+.P1
+	`define' = 1;
+.P2
+.PP
+As another instance of the same thing, which is a bit more surprising,
+consider redefining
+.UL N :
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+ ...
+define(N, 200)
+.P2
+Perhaps regrettably, the
+.UL N
+in the second definition is
+evaluated as soon as it's seen;
+that is, it is
+replaced by
+100, so it's as if you had written
+.P1
+define(100, 200)
+.P2
+This statement is ignored by M4, since you can only define things that look
+like names, but it obviously doesn't have the effect you wanted.
+To really redefine 
+.UL N ,
+you must delay the evaluation by quoting:
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+ ...
+define(`N', 200)
+.P2
+In M4,
+it is often wise to quote the first argument of a macro.
+.PP
+If \` and \' are not convenient for some reason,
+the quote characters can be changed with the built-in
+.UL changequote :
+.P1
+changequote([, ])
+.P2
+makes the new quote characters the left and right brackets.
+You can restore the original characters with just
+.P1
+changequote
+.P2
+.PP
+There are two additional built-ins related to
+.UL define .
+.UL undefine
+removes the definition of some macro or built-in:
+.P1
+undefine(`N')
+.P2
+removes the definition of
+.UL N .
+(Why are the quotes absolutely necessary?)
+Built-ins can be removed with 
+.UL undefine ,
+as in
+.P1
+undefine(`define')
+.P2
+but once you remove one, you can never get it back.
+.PP
+The built-in 
+.UL ifdef
+provides a way to determine if a macro is currently defined.
+In particular, M4 has pre-defined the names
+.UL unix
+and
+.UL gcos
+on the corresponding systems, so you can
+tell which one you're using:
+.P1
+ifdef(`unix', `define(wordsize,16)' )
+ifdef(`gcos', `define(wordsize,36)' )
+.P2
+makes a definition appropriate for the particular machine.
+Don't forget the quotes!
+.PP
+.UL ifdef
+actually permits three arguments;
+if the name is undefined, the value of
+.UL ifdef
+is then the third argument, as in
+.P1
+ifdef(`unix', on UNIX, not on UNIX)
+.P2
+.SH
+Arguments
+.PP
+So far we have discussed the simplest form of macro processing _
+replacing one string by another (fixed) string.
+User-defined macros may also have arguments, so different invocations
+can have different results.
+Within the replacement text for a macro
+(the second argument of its
+.UL define )
+any occurrence of
+.UL $n
+will be replaced by the 
+.UL n th
+argument when the macro
+is actually used.
+Thus, the macro
+.UL bump ,
+defined as
+.P1
+define(bump, $1 = $1 + 1)
+.P2
+generates code to increment its argument by 1:
+.P1
+bump(x)
+.P2
+is
+.P1
+x = x + 1
+.P2
+.PP
+A macro can have as many arguments as you want,
+but only the first nine are accessible,
+through
+.UL $1
+to
+.UL $9 .
+(The macro name itself is
+.UL $0 ,
+although that is less commonly used.)
+Arguments that are not supplied are replaced by null strings,
+so
+we can define a macro
+.UL cat
+which simply concatenates its arguments, like this:
+.P1
+define(cat, $1$2$3$4$5$6$7$8$9)
+.P2
+Thus
+.P1
+cat(x, y, z)
+.P2
+is equivalent to
+.P1
+xyz
+.P2
+.UL $4
+through
+.UL $9
+are null, since no corresponding arguments were provided.
+.PP
+.PP
+Leading unquoted blanks, tabs, or newlines that occur during argument collection
+are discarded.
+All other white space is retained.
+Thus
+.P1
+define(a,   b   c)
+.P2
+defines
+.UL a
+to be
+.UL b\ \ \ c .
+.PP
+Arguments are separated by commas, but parentheses are counted properly,
+so a comma ``protected'' by parentheses does not terminate an argument.
+That is, in
+.P1
+define(a, (b,c))
+.P2
+there are only two arguments;
+the second is literally
+.UL (b,c) .
+And of course a bare comma or parenthesis can be inserted by quoting it.
+.SH
+Arithmetic Built-ins
+.PP
+M4 provides two built-in functions for doing arithmetic
+on integers (only).
+The simplest is
+.UL incr ,
+which increments its numeric argument by 1.
+Thus to handle the common programming situation
+where you want a variable to be defined as ``one more than N'',
+write
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+define(N1, `incr(N)')
+.P2
+Then
+.UL N1
+is defined as one more than the current value of
+.UL N .
+.PP
+The more general mechanism for arithmetic is a built-in
+called
+.UL eval ,
+which is capable of arbitrary arithmetic on integers.
+It provides the operators
+(in decreasing order of precedence)
+.DS
+unary + and \(mi
+** or ^	(exponentiation)
+*  /  % (modulus)
++  \(mi
+==  !=  <  <=  >  >=
+!		(not)
+& or &&	(logical and)
+\(or or \(or\(or		(logical or)
+.DE
+Parentheses may be used to group operations where needed.
+All the operands of
+an expression given to
+.UL eval
+must ultimately be numeric.
+The numeric value of a true relation
+(like 1>0)
+is 1, and false is 0.
+The precision in
+.UL eval
+is
+32 bits on
+.UC UNIX
+and 36 bits on
+.UC GCOS .
+.PP
+As a simple example, suppose we want 
+.UL M
+to be 
+.UL 2**N+1 .
+Then
+.P1
+define(N, 3)	
+define(M, `eval(2**N+1)')
+.P2
+As a matter of principle, it is advisable
+to quote the defining text for a macro
+unless it is very simple indeed
+(say just a number);
+it usually gives the result you want,
+and is a good habit to get into.
+.SH
+File Manipulation
+.PP
+You can include a new file in the input at any time by
+the built-in function
+.UL include :
+.P1
+include(filename)
+.P2
+inserts the contents of
+.UL filename
+in place of the
+.UL include
+command.
+The contents of the file is often a set of definitions.
+The value
+of
+.UL include
+(that is, its replacement text)
+is the contents of the file;
+this can be captured in definitions, etc.
+.PP
+It is a fatal error if the file named in
+.UL include
+cannot be accessed.
+To get some control over this situation, the alternate form
+.UL sinclude
+can be used;
+.UL sinclude 
+(``silent include'')
+says nothing and continues if it can't access the file.
+.PP
+It is also possible to divert the output of M4 to temporary files during processing,
+and output the collected material upon command.
+M4 maintains nine of these diversions, numbered 1 through 9.
+If you say
+.P1
+divert(n)
+.P2
+all subsequent output is put onto the end of a temporary file
+referred to as
+.UL n .
+Diverting to this file is stopped by another 
+.UL divert 
+command;
+in particular,
+.UL divert
+or
+.UL divert(0)
+resumes the normal output process.
+.PP
+Diverted text is normally output all at once
+at the end of processing,
+with the diversions output in numeric order.
+It is possible, however, to bring back diversions
+at any time,
+that is, to append them to the current diversion.
+.P1
+undivert
+.P2
+brings back all diversions in numeric order, and
+.UL undivert
+with arguments brings back the selected diversions
+in the order given.
+The act of undiverting discards the diverted stuff,
+as does diverting into a diversion 
+whose number is not between 0 and 9 inclusive.
+.PP
+The value of
+.UL undivert
+is
+.ul
+not
+the diverted stuff.
+Furthermore, the diverted material is
+.ul
+not
+rescanned for macros.
+.PP
+The built-in
+.UL divnum
+returns the number of the currently active diversion.
+This is zero during normal processing.
+.SH
+System Command
+.PP
+You can run any program in the local operating system
+with the
+.UL syscmd
+built-in.
+For example,
+.P1
+syscmd(date)
+.P2
+on
+.UC UNIX
+runs the
+.UL date
+command.
+Normally
+.UL syscmd
+would be used to create a file
+for a subsequent
+.UL include .
+.PP
+To facilitate making unique file names, the built-in
+.UL maketemp
+is provided, with specifications identical to the system function
+.ul
+mktemp:
+a string of XXXXX in the argument is replaced
+by the process id of the current process.
+.SH
+Conditionals
+.PP
+There is a built-in called
+.UL ifelse
+which enables you to perform arbitrary conditional testing.
+In the simplest form,
+.P1
+ifelse(a, b, c, d)
+.P2
+compares the two strings
+.UL a
+and
+.UL b .
+If these are identical, 
+.UL ifelse
+returns
+the string
+.UL c ;
+otherwise it returns
+.UL d .
+Thus we might define a macro called
+.UL compare
+which compares two strings and returns ``yes'' or ``no''
+if they are the same or different.
+.P1
+define(compare, `ifelse($1, $2, yes, no)')
+.P2
+Note the quotes,
+which prevent too-early evaluation of
+.UL ifelse .
+.PP
+If the fourth argument is missing, it is treated as empty.
+.PP
+.UL ifelse
+can actually have any number of arguments,
+and thus provides a limited form of multi-way decision capability.
+In the input
+.P1
+ifelse(a, b, c, d, e, f, g)
+.P2
+if the string
+.UL a
+matches the string
+.UL b ,
+the result is
+.UL c .
+Otherwise, if
+.UL d
+is the same as
+.UL e ,
+the result is
+.UL f .
+Otherwise the result is
+.UL g .
+If the final argument
+is omitted, the result is null,
+so
+.P1
+ifelse(a, b, c)
+.P2
+is
+.UL c
+if 
+.UL a
+matches
+.UL b ,
+and null otherwise.
+.SH
+String Manipulation
+.PP
+The built-in
+.UL len
+returns the length of the string that makes up its argument.
+Thus
+.P1
+len(abcdef)
+.P2
+is 6, and
+.UL len((a,b))
+is 5.
+.PP
+The built-in
+.UL substr
+can be used to produce substrings of strings.
+.UL substr(s,\ i,\ n)
+returns the substring of
+.UL s
+that starts at the
+.UL i th
+position
+(origin zero),
+and is
+.UL n
+characters long.
+If 
+.UL n
+is omitted, the rest of the string is returned,
+so
+.P1
+substr(`now is the time', 1)
+.P2
+is
+.P1
+ow is the time
+.P2
+If 
+.UL i
+or
+.UL n
+are out of range, various sensible things happen.
+.PP
+.UL index(s1,\ s2)
+returns the index (position) in
+.UL s1
+where the string
+.UL s2
+occurs, or \-1
+if it doesn't occur.
+As with
+.UL substr ,
+the origin for strings is 0.
+.PP
+The built-in
+.UL translit
+performs character transliteration.
+.P1
+translit(s, f, t)
+.P2
+modifies
+.UL s
+by replacing any character found in
+.UL f
+by the corresponding character of
+.UL t .
+That is,
+.P1
+translit(s, aeiou, 12345)
+.P2
+replaces the vowels by the corresponding digits.
+If
+.UL t
+is shorter than
+.UL f ,
+characters which don't have an entry in
+.UL t
+are deleted; as a limiting case,
+if
+.UL t
+is not present at all,
+characters from 
+.UL f
+are deleted from 
+.UL s .
+So
+.P1
+translit(s, aeiou)
+.P2
+deletes vowels from 
+.UL s .
+.PP
+There is also a built-in called
+.UL dnl
+which deletes all characters that follow it up to
+and including the next newline;
+it is useful mainly for throwing away 
+empty lines that otherwise tend to clutter up M4 output.
+For example, if you say
+.P1
+define(N, 100)
+define(M, 200)
+define(L, 300)
+.P2
+the newline at the end of each line is not part of the definition,
+so it is copied into the output, where it may not be wanted.
+If you add
+.UL dnl
+to each of these lines, the newlines will disappear.
+.PP
+Another way to achieve this, due to J. E. Weythman,
+is
+.P1
+divert(-1)
+	define(...)
+	...
+divert
+.P2
+.SH
+Printing
+.PP
+The built-in
+.UL errprint
+writes its arguments out on the standard error file.
+Thus you can say
+.P1
+errprint(`fatal error')
+.P2
+.PP
+.UL dumpdef
+is a debugging aid which
+dumps the current definitions of defined terms.
+If there are no arguments, you get everything;
+otherwise you get the ones you name as arguments.
+Don't forget to quote the names!
+.SH
+Summary of Built-ins
+.PP
+Each entry is preceded by the
+page number where it is described.
+.DS
+.tr '\'`\`
+.ta .25i
+3	changequote(L, R)
+1	define(name, replacement)
+4	divert(number)
+4	divnum
+5	dnl
+5	dumpdef(`name', `name', ...)
+5	errprint(s, s, ...)
+4	eval(numeric expression)
+3	ifdef(`name', this if true, this if false)
+5	ifelse(a, b, c, d)
+4	include(file)
+3	incr(number)
+5	index(s1, s2)
+5	len(string)
+4	maketemp(...XXXXX...)
+4	sinclude(file)
+5	substr(string, position, number)
+4	syscmd(s)
+5	translit(str, from, to)
+3	undefine(`name')
+4	undivert(number,number,...)
+.DE
+.SH
+Acknowledgements
+.PP
+We are indebted to Rick Becker, John Chambers,
+Doug McIlroy,
+and especially Jim Weythman,
+whose pioneering use of M4 has led to several valuable improvements.
+We are also deeply grateful to Weythman for several substantial contributions
+to the code.
+.SG
+.SH
+References
+.LP
+.IP [1]
+B. W. Kernighan and P. J. Plauger,
+.ul
+Software Tools,
+Addison-Wesley, Inc., 1976.
diff --git a/usr/doc/make b/usr/doc/make
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..3c8775851b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/make
@@ -0,0 +1,791 @@
+.....TR 57
+.ND August 15, 1978
+.RP
+.de IT
+.if n .ul
+\&\\$3\f2\\$1\fR\^\&\\$2
+..
+.TL
+Make \(em A Program for Maintaining Computer Programs
+.AU
+S. I. Feldman
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+.PP
+In a programming project, it is easy to lose track of which files need
+to be reprocessed or recompiled after a change is made in some part of the source.
+.I Make
+provides a simple mechanism for maintaining up-to-date versions of programs that result
+from many operations on a number of files.
+It is possible to tell
+.I Make
+the sequence of commands that create certain files,
+and the list of files that require other files to be current before the operations can be done.
+Whenever a change is made in any part of the program,
+the
+.I Make
+command will create the proper files simply, correctly,
+and with a minimum amount of effort.
+.PP
+The basic operation of
+.I Make
+is to find the name of a needed target in the description, ensure that all of the files on which it depends exist and
+are up to date, and then create the target if it has not been modified since its generators were.
+The description file really defines the graph of dependencies;
+.I Make
+does a depth-first search of this graph
+to determine what work is really necessary.
+.PP
+.I Make
+also provides a simple macro substitution facility
+and the ability to encapsulate commands in a single file
+for convenient administration.
+.AE
+.SH
+Introduction
+.PP
+It is common practice to divide large programs into smaller, more manageable pieces.
+The pieces may require quite different treatments:
+some may need to be run through a macro processor, some may need to be processed by
+a sophisticated program generator (e.g., Yacc[1] or Lex[2]).
+The outputs of these generators may then have to be compiled with special options and with
+certain definitions and declarations.
+The code resulting from these transformations may then need to be loaded together with
+certain libraries under the control of special options.
+Related maintenance activities involve running complicated test scripts
+and installing validated modules.
+Unfortunately, it is very easy for a programmer to forget which files depend on which others,
+which files have been modified recently, and the exact sequence of operations
+needed to make or exercise a new version of the program.
+After a long editing session, one may easily lose track of which files have been changed
+and which object modules are still valid,
+since a change to a declaration can obsolete a dozen other files.
+Forgetting to compile a routine that has been changed or that uses changed declarations will result in
+a program that will not work, and a bug that can be very hard to track down.
+On the other hand, recompiling everything in sight just to be safe is very wasteful.
+.PP
+The program described in this report mechanizes many of the activities of program development
+and maintenance.
+If the information on inter-file dependences and command sequences is stored in a file, the simple command
+.DS
+make
+.DE
+is frequently sufficient to update the interesting files,
+regardless of the number that have been edited since the last ``make''.
+In most cases, the description file is easy to write and changes infrequently.
+It is usually easier to type the
+.IT make
+command than to issue even one of the needed operations, so the typical cycle of program development operations becomes
+.DS
+think \(em edit \(em \fImake\fR \(em test  . . .
+.DE
+.PP
+.IT Make
+is most useful for medium-sized programming projects;
+it does not solve the problems of maintaining multiple source versions
+or of describing huge programs.
+.IT Make
+was designed for use on Unix, but a version runs on GCOS.
+.SH
+Basic Features
+.PP
+The basic operation of
+.IT make
+is to update a target file by ensuring
+that all of the files on which it depends exist and are up to date,
+then creating the target if it has not been modified since its dependents were.
+.IT Make
+does a depth-first search of the graph of dependences.
+The operation of the command depends on the ability to find the date and time
+that a file was last modified.
+.PP
+To illustrate, let us consider a simple example:
+A program named
+.IT prog
+is made by compiling and loading three C-language files
+.IT x.c ,
+.IT y.c ,
+and
+.IT z.c
+with the
+.IT lS
+library.
+By convention, the output of the C compilations will be found in files named
+.IT x.o ,
+.IT y.o ,
+and
+.IT z.o .
+Assume that the files
+.IT x.c
+and
+.IT y.c
+share some declarations in a file named
+.IT defs ,
+but that
+.IT z.c
+does not.
+That is,
+.IT x.c
+and
+.IT y.c
+have the line
+.DS
+#include "defs"
+.DE
+The following text describes the relationships and operations:
+.DS
+prog :  x.o  y.o  z.o
+	cc  x.o  y.o  z.o   \-lS  \-o  prog
+.sp .5
+x.o  y.o :   defs
+.DE
+If this information were stored in a file named
+.IT makefile ,
+the command
+.DS
+make
+.DE
+would perform the operations needed to recreate
+.IT prog
+after any changes had been made to any of the four source files
+.IT x.c ,
+.IT y.c ,
+.IT z.c ,
+or
+.IT defs .
+.PP
+.IT Make
+operates using three sources of information:
+a user-supplied description file (as above),
+file names and ``last-modified'' times from the file system,
+and built-in rules to bridge some of the gaps.
+In our example, the first line says that
+.IT prog
+depends on three ``\fI.o\fR'' files.
+Once these object files are current, the second line describes how to load them to create
+.IT prog .
+The third line says that
+.IT x.o
+and
+.IT y.o
+depend on the file
+.IT defs .
+From the file system,
+.IT make
+discovers that there are three ``\fI.c\fR'' files corresponding to the needed ``\fI.o\fR'' files,
+and uses built-in information on how to generate an object from a source file
+(\fIi.e.,\fR issue a ``cc\ \-c'' command).
+.PP
+The following long-winded description file is equivalent to the one above, but
+takes no advantage of
+.IT make 's
+innate knowledge:
+.DS
+prog :  x.o  y.o  z.o
+	cc  x.o  y.o  z.o  \-lS  \-o  prog
+.sp .3
+x.o :  x.c  defs
+	cc  \-c  x.c
+y.o :  y.c  defs
+	cc  \-c  y.c
+z.o :  z.c
+	cc  \-c  z.c
+.DE
+.PP
+If none of the source or object files had changed since the last time
+.IT prog
+was made, all of the files would be current, and
+the command
+.DS
+make
+.DE
+would just announce this fact and stop.
+If, however, the
+.IT defs
+file had been edited,
+.IT x.c
+and
+.IT y.c
+(but not
+.IT z.c )
+would be recompiled, and then
+.IT prog
+would be created from the new ``\fI.o\fR'' files.
+If only the file
+.IT y.c
+had changed, only it would be recompiled, but it would still be necessary to reload
+.IT prog .
+.PP
+If no target name is given on the
+.IT make
+command line, the first target mentioned in the description is created;
+otherwise the specified targets are made.
+The command
+.DS
+make x.o
+.DE
+would recompile
+.IT x.o
+if
+.IT x.c
+or
+.IT defs
+had changed.
+.PP
+If the file exists after the commands are executed,
+its time of last modification is used in further decisions;
+otherwise the current time is used.
+It is often quite useful to include rules with mnemonic names and commands that do not
+actually produce a file with that name.
+These entries can take advantage of
+.IT make 's
+ability to generate files and substitute macros.
+Thus, an entry
+``save''
+might be included to copy a certain set of files, or an entry
+``cleanup''
+might be used to throw away unneeded intermediate files.
+In other cases one may maintain a zero-length file purely to keep track
+of the time at which certain actions were performed.
+This technique is useful for maintaining remote archives and listings.
+.PP
+.IT Make
+has a simple macro mechanism for substituting in dependency lines and command strings.
+Macros are defined by command arguments or description file lines with embedded equal signs.
+A macro is invoked by preceding the name by a dollar sign;
+macro names longer than one character must be parenthesized.
+The name of the macro is either the single character after the dollar sign or a name inside parentheses.
+The following are valid macro invocations:
+.DS
+$(CFLAGS)
+$2
+$(xy)
+$Z
+$(Z)
+.DE
+The last two invocations are identical.
+$$ is a dollar sign.
+All of these macros are assigned values during input, as shown below.
+Four special macros change values during the execution of the command:
+$\(**, $@, $?, and $<.
+They will be discussed later.
+The following fragment shows the use:
+.DS
+OBJECTS = x.o y.o z.o
+LIBES = \-lS
+prog: $(OBJECTS)
+	cc $(OBJECTS)  $(LIBES)  \-o prog
+  . . .
+.DE
+The command
+.DS
+make
+.DE
+loads the three object files with the
+.IT lS
+library.  The command
+.DS
+make  "LIBES= \-ll \-lS"
+.DE
+loads them with both the Lex (``\-ll'') and the Standard (``\-lS'') libraries,
+since macro definitions on the command line override definitions in the description.
+(It is necessary to quote arguments with embedded blanks in
+.UX
+commands.)
+.PP
+The following sections detail the form of description files and the command line,
+and discuss options and built-in rules in more detail.
+.SH
+Description Files and Substitutions
+.PP
+A description file contains three types of information:
+macro definitions,
+dependency information,
+and executable commands.
+There is also a comment convention:
+all characters after a sharp (#) are ignored, as is the sharp itself.
+Blank lines and lines beginning with a sharp are totally ignored.
+If a non-comment line is too long, it can be continued using a backslash.
+If the last character of a line is a backslash, the backslash, newline,
+and following blanks and tabs are replaced by a single blank.
+.PP
+A macro definition is a line containing an equal sign not preceded by a colon or a tab.
+The name (string of letters and digits) to the left of the equal sign
+(trailing blanks and tabs are stripped) is assigned the string of characters following the equal sign
+(leading blanks and tabs are stripped.)
+The following are valid macro definitions:
+.DS
+2 = xyz
+abc = \-ll \-ly \-lS
+LIBES =
+.DE
+The last definition assigns LIBES the null string.
+A macro that is never explicitly defined has the null string as value.
+Macro definitions may also appear on the
+.IT make
+command line (see below).
+.PP
+Other lines give information about target files.
+The general form of an entry is:
+.DS
+target1 [target2 . . .] :[:] [dependent1 . . .] [; commands] [# . . .]
+[\fI(tab)\fR commands] [# . . .]
+ . . .
+.DE
+Items inside brackets may be omitted.
+Targets and dependents are strings of letters, digits, periods, and slashes.
+(Shell metacharacters ``\(**'' and ``?'' are expanded.)
+A command is any string of characters not including a sharp (except in quotes)
+or newline.
+Commands may appear either after a semicolon on a dependency line
+or on lines beginning with a tab immediately following a dependency line.
+.PP
+A dependency line may have either a single or a double colon.
+A target name may appear on more than one dependency line, but all of those lines must be of the
+same (single or double colon) type.
+.IP 1.
+For the usual single-colon case,
+at most one of these dependency lines may have a command sequence associated with it.
+If the target is out of date with any of the dependents on any of the lines,
+and a command sequence is specified (even a null one following a semicolon or tab),
+it is executed; otherwise a default creation rule may be invoked.
+.IP 2.
+In the double-colon case, a command sequence may be associated with each dependency line;
+if the target is out of date with any of the files on a particular line, the associated
+commands are executed.
+A built-in rule may also be executed.
+This detailed form is of particular value in updating archive-type files.
+.PP
+If a target must be created, the sequence of commands is executed.
+Normally, each command line is printed and then
+passed to a separate invocation of the Shell after substituting for macros.
+(The printing is suppressed in silent mode or if the command line begins with an @ sign).
+.IT Make
+normally stops if any command signals an error by returning a non-zero error code.
+(Errors are ignored if the ``\-i'' flags has been specified on the
+.IT make
+command line,
+if the fake target name ``.IGNORE'' appears in the description file,
+or if the command string in the description file begins with a hyphen.
+Some
+.UX
+commands return meaningless status).
+Because each command line is passed to a separate invocation of the Shell,
+care must be taken with certain commands (e.g., \fIcd\fR and Shell control commands) that have meaning only
+within a single Shell process;
+the results are forgotten before the next line is executed.
+.PP
+Before issuing any command, certain macros are set.
+$@ is set to the name of the file to be ``made''.
+$? is set to the string of names that were found to be younger than the target.
+If the command was generated by an implicit rule (see below),
+$< is the name of the related file that caused the action, and
+$\(** is the prefix shared by the current and the dependent file names.
+.PP
+If a file must be made but there are no explicit commands or relevant
+built-in rules,
+the commands associated with the name ``.DEFAULT'' are used.
+If there is no such name,
+.IT make
+prints a message and stops.
+.SH
+Command Usage
+.PP
+The
+.IT make
+command takes four kinds of arguments:
+macro definitions, flags, description file names, and target file names.
+.DS
+make [ flags ]  [ macro definitions ]  [ targets ]
+.DE
+The following summary of the operation of the command explains how these arguments are interpreted.
+.PP
+First, all macro definition arguments (arguments with embedded equal signs) are analyzed
+and the assignments made.
+Command-line macros override corresponding definitions found in the description files.
+.PP
+Next, the flag arguments are examined.
+The permissible flags are
+.IP \-i
+Ignore error codes returned by invoked commands.
+This mode is entered if the fake target name ``.IGNORE'' appears in the description file.
+.IP \-s
+Silent mode.  Do not print command lines before executing.
+This mode is also entered if the fake target name ``.SILENT'' appears in the description file.
+.IP \-r
+Do not use the built-in rules.
+.IP \-n
+No execute mode.  Print commands, but do not execute them.
+Even lines beginning with an ``@'' sign are printed.
+.IP \-t
+Touch the target files (causing them to be up to date) rather than issue the usual commands.
+.IP \-q
+Question.
+The
+.IT make
+command returns a zero or non-zero status code depending on whether the target file
+is or is not up to date.
+.IP \-p
+Print out the complete set of macro definitions and target descriptions
+.IP \-d
+Debug mode.  Print out detailed information on files and times examined.
+.IP \-f
+Description file name.  The next argument is assumed to be the name of a description file.
+A file name of ``\-'' denotes the standard input.
+If there are no ``\-f\|'' arguments, the file named
+.IT makefile
+or
+.IT Makefile
+in the current directory is read.
+The contents of the description files override the built-in rules if they are present).
+.PP
+Finally, the remaining arguments are assumed to be the names of targets to be made;
+they are done in left to right order.
+If there are no such arguments, the first name in the description files that does not
+begin with a period is ``made''.
+.SH
+Implicit Rules
+.PP
+The
+.ul
+make
+program uses a table of interesting suffixes and a set
+of transformation rules to supply default dependency
+information and implied commands.
+(The Appendix describes these tables and means of overriding
+them.)
+The default suffix list is:
+.KS
+.sp
+.nf
+.ta 0.5i 1.5i
+	\fI.o\fR	Object file
+	\fI.c\fR	C source file
+	\fI.e\fR	Efl source file
+	\fI.r\fR	Ratfor source file
+	\fI.f\fR	Fortran source file
+	\fI.s\fR	Assembler source file
+	\fI.y\fR	Yacc-C source grammar
+	\fI.yr\fR	Yacc-Ratfor source grammar
+	\fI.ye\fR	Yacc-Efl source grammar
+	\fI.l\fR	Lex source grammar
+.fi
+.sp
+.KE
+The following diagram summarizes the default transformation paths.
+If there are two paths connecting a pair of suffixes, the longer
+one is used only if the intermediate file exists or is
+named in the description.
+.KS
+.sp
+.ft I
+.ta 2i
+	.o
+.sp 2
+.ta 0.75i 1.25i 1.6i 2.1i
+	.c	.r	.e	.f  .s  .y  .yr  .ye  .l  .d
+.sp 2
+.ta 0.6i 1.25i 1.6i
+	.y .l	.yr	.ye
+.ft R
+.sp
+.KE
+.PP
+If the file
+.ul
+x.o
+were needed and there were an
+.ul
+x.c
+in the description or directory, it would be compiled.
+If there were also an
+.IT x.l ,
+that grammar would be run through Lex before compiling the result.
+However, if there were no
+.ul
+x.c
+but there were an
+.IT x.l ,
+.IT make
+would discard the intermediate C-language file and use the
+direct link in the graph above.
+.PP
+It is possible to change the names of some of the compilers used in the
+default, or the flag arguments with which they are invoked by knowing
+the macro names used.
+The compiler names are the macros AS, CC, RC, EC, YACC, YACCR, YACCE, and LEX.
+The command
+.DS
+make CC=newcc
+.DE
+will cause the ``newcc'' command to be used instead of the
+usual C compiler.
+The macros CFLAGS, RFLAGS, EFLAGS, YFLAGS, and LFLAGS may be set to
+cause these commands to be issued with optional flags.
+Thus,
+.DS
+make "CFLAGS=\|\(miO"
+.DE
+causes the optimizing C compiler to be used.
+.SH
+Example
+.PP
+As an example of the use of
+.ul
+make,
+we will present the description file used to maintain
+the
+.ul
+make
+command itself.
+The code for
+.ul
+make
+is spread over a number of C source files and a Yacc grammar.
+The description file contains:
+.DS
+# Description file for the Make command
+.sp .3
+P = und \-3 | opr \-r2       # send to GCOS to be printed
+FILES = Makefile version.c defs main.c doname.c misc.c files.c dosys.c\
+	gram.y lex.c gcos.c
+OBJECTS = version.o main.o doname.o misc.o files.o dosys.o gram.o
+LIBES= \-lS
+LINT = lint \-p
+CFLAGS = \-O
+.sp .3
+make:  $(OBJECTS)
+	cc $(CFLAGS) $(OBJECTS) $(LIBES) \-o make
+	size make
+.sp .3
+$(OBJECTS):  defs
+gram.o: lex.c
+.sp .3
+cleanup:
+	-rm *.o gram.c
+	-du
+.sp .3
+install:
+	@size make /usr/bin/make
+	cp make /usr/bin/make ; rm make
+.sp .3
+print:  $(FILES)	# print recently changed files
+	pr $? | $P
+	touch print
+.sp .3
+test:
+	make \-dp | grep \-v TIME >1zap
+	/usr/bin/make \-dp | grep \-v TIME >2zap
+	diff 1zap 2zap
+	rm 1zap 2zap
+.sp .3
+lint :  dosys.c doname.c files.c main.c misc.c version.c gram.c
+	$(LINT) dosys.c doname.c files.c main.c misc.c version.c gram.c
+	rm gram.c
+.sp .3
+arch:
+	ar uv /sys/source/s2/make.a $(FILES)
+.DE
+.IT Make
+usually prints out each command before issuing it.
+The following output results from typing the simple command
+.DS
+make
+.DE
+in a directory containing only the source and description file:
+.DS
+ cc  \-c version.c
+ cc  \-c main.c
+ cc  \-c doname.c
+ cc  \-c misc.c
+ cc  \-c files.c
+ cc  \-c dosys.c
+ yacc  gram.y
+ mv y.tab.c gram.c
+ cc  \-c gram.c
+ cc  version.o main.o doname.o misc.o files.o dosys.o gram.o \-lS \-o make
+ 13188+3348+3044 = 19580b = 046174b
+.DE
+Although none of the source files or grammars were mentioned
+by name in the description file,
+.IT make
+found them using its suffix rules and issued the needed commands.
+The string of digits results from the ``size make''
+command; the printing of the command line itself was
+suppressed by an @ sign.
+The @ sign on the
+.IT size
+command in the description file suppressed the printing of the command,
+so only the sizes are written.
+.PP
+The last few entries in the description file are useful maintenance sequences.
+The ``print'' entry prints only the files that have been changed since the last
+``make print'' command.
+A zero-length file
+.IT print
+is maintained to keep track of the time of the printing;
+the $? macro in the command line then picks up only the names of the files
+changed since
+.IT print
+was touched.
+The printed output can be sent to a different printer or to a file by changing the definition of the
+.IT P
+macro:
+.DS
+make print "P = opr \-sp"
+	\fIor\fR
+make print "P=  cat >zap"
+.DE
+.SH
+Suggestions and Warnings
+.PP
+The most common difficulties arise from
+.IT make 's
+specific meaning of dependency.
+If file
+.IT x.c
+has a ``#include "defs"''
+line, then the object file
+.IT x.o
+depends on
+.IT defs ;
+the source file
+.IT x.c
+does not.
+(If
+.IT defs
+is changed, it is not necessary to do anything
+to the file
+.IT x.c ,
+while it is necessary to recreate
+.IT x.o .)
+.PP
+To discover what
+.IT make
+would do, the ``\-n'' option is very useful.
+The command
+.DS
+make \-n
+.DE
+orders
+.IT make
+to print out the commands it would issue without actually taking the time to execute them.
+If a change to a file is absolutely certain to be benign
+(e.g., adding a new definition to an include file),
+the ``\-t'' (touch) option
+can save a lot of time:
+instead of issuing a large number of superfluous recompilations,
+.IT make
+updates the modification times on the affected file.
+Thus, the command
+.DS
+make \-ts
+.DE
+(``touch silently'') causes the relevant files to appear up to date.
+Obvious care is necessary, since this mode of operation subverts
+the intention of
+.IT make
+and destroys all memory of the previous relationships.
+.PP
+The debugging flag (``\-d'') causes
+.IT make
+to print out a very detailed description of what it is doing, including the
+file times.  The output is verbose, and recommended only as a last resort.
+.SH
+Acknowledgments
+.PP
+I would like to thank S. C. Johnson for suggesting this approach
+to program maintenance control.
+I would like to thank S. C. Johnson and H. Gajewska for being
+the prime guinea pigs during development of
+.IT make .
+.SH
+References
+.IP 1.
+S. C. Johnson,
+``Yacc \(em Yet Another Compiler-Compiler'',
+Bell Laboratories
+Computing Science Technical Report #32,
+July 1978.
+.IP 2.
+M. E. Lesk,
+``Lex \(em A Lexical Analyzer Generator'',
+Computing Science Technical Report #39,
+October 1975.
+.bp
+.SH
+Appendix.  Suffixes and Transformation Rules
+.PP
+The
+.ul
+make
+program itself does not know what file name suffixes are interesting
+or how to transform a file with one suffix into a file with another
+suffix.
+This information is stored in an internal table that has the form of a description file.
+If the ``\-r'' flag is used, this table is not used.
+.PP
+The list of suffixes is actually the dependency list for the name
+``.SUFFIXES'';
+.ul
+make
+looks for a file with any of the suffixes on the list.
+If such a file exists, and if there is a transformation
+rule for that combination,
+.ul
+make
+acts as described earlier.
+The transformation rule names are the concatenation of the
+two suffixes.
+The name of the rule to transform a ``\fI.r\fR'' file to a ``\fI.o\fR'' file
+is thus ``\fI.r.o\fR''.
+If the rule is present and no explicit command sequence
+has been given in the user's description files, the command
+sequence for the rule ``.r.o'' is used.
+If a command is generated by using one of these suffixing rules,
+the macro $\(** is given the value of the stem
+(everything but the suffix) of the name of the file to be made,
+and the macro $< is the name of the dependent that caused the action.
+.PP
+The order of the suffix list is significant, since it is scanned from
+left to right, and the first name that is formed that has both a file
+and a rule associated with it is used.
+If new names are to be appended, the user can just add an entry for
+``.SUFFIXES'' in his own description file; the dependents will be added to the usual list.
+A ``.SUFFIXES'' line without any dependents deletes the current list.
+(It is necessary to clear the current list if the order of names is to be changed).
+.PP
+The following is an excerpt from the default rules file:
+.DS
+.ta .5i 1i
+ .SUFFIXES : .o .c .e .r .f .y .yr .ye .l .s
+ YACC=yacc
+ YACCR=yacc \-r
+ YACCE=yacc \-e
+ YFLAGS=
+ LEX=lex
+ LFLAGS=
+ CC=cc
+ AS=as \-
+ CFLAGS=
+ RC=ec
+ RFLAGS=
+ EC=ec
+ EFLAGS=
+ FFLAGS=
+ .c.o :
+ 	$(CC) $(CFLAGS) \-c $<
+ .e.o .r.o .f.o :
+ 	$(EC) $(RFLAGS) $(EFLAGS) $(FFLAGS) \-c $<
+ .s.o :
+ 	$(AS) \-o $@ $<
+ .y.o :
+ 	$(YACC) $(YFLAGS) $<
+ 	$(CC) $(CFLAGS) \-c y.tab.c
+ 	rm y.tab.c
+ 	mv y.tab.o $@
+ .y.c :
+ 	$(YACC) $(YFLAGS) $<
+ 	mv y.tab.c $@
+.DE
diff --git a/usr/doc/password b/usr/doc/password
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..27124b8824
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/password
@@ -0,0 +1,558 @@
+.\" tbl mm ^ eqn ^ troff -ms
+.EQ
+delim $$
+.EN
+.RP
+....TM 78-1271-5 39199 39199-11
+.ND April 3, 1978
+.TL
+Password Security:
+A Case History
+.OK
+Encryption
+Computing
+.AU "MH 2C-524" 3878
+Robert Morris
+.AU "MH 2C-523" 2394
+Ken Thompson
+.AI
+.MH
+.AB
+This paper describes the history of the design of the
+password security scheme on a remotely accessed time-sharing
+system.
+The present design was the result of countering
+observed attempts to penetrate the system.
+The result is a compromise between extreme security and
+ease of use.
+.AE
+.CS 6 0 6 0 0 4
+.SH
+INTRODUCTION
+.PP
+Password security on the
+.UX
+time-sharing system [1] is provided by a
+collection of programs
+whose elaborate and strange design is the outgrowth of
+many years of experience with earlier versions.
+To help develop a secure system, we have had a continuing
+competition to devise new ways to
+attack the security of the system (the bad guy) and, at the same time, to
+devise new techniques to resist the new attacks (the good guy).
+This competition has been in the same vein as the
+competition of long standing between manufacturers of armor
+plate and those of armor-piercing shells.
+For this reason, the description that follows will
+trace the history of the password system rather than simply
+presenting the program in its current state.
+In this way, the reasons for the design will be made clearer,
+as the design cannot be understood without also
+understanding the potential attacks.
+.PP
+An underlying goal has been to provide password security
+at minimal inconvenience to the users of the system.
+For example, those who want to run a completely open
+system without passwords, or to have passwords only at the
+option of the individual users, are able to do so, while
+those who require all of their users to have passwords
+gain a high degree of security
+against penetration of the system by unauthorized
+users.
+.PP
+The password system must be able not only to prevent
+any access to the system by unauthorized users
+(i.e. prevent them from logging in at all),
+but it must also
+prevent users who are already logged in from doing
+things that they are not authorized to do.
+The so called ``super-user'' password, for example, is especially
+critical because the super-user has all sorts of
+permissions and has essentially unlimited access to
+all system resources.
+.PP
+Password security is of course only one component of
+overall system security, but it is an essential component.
+Experience has shown that attempts to penetrate
+remote-access systems have been astonishingly
+sophisticated.
+.PP
+Remote-access systems are peculiarly vulnerable to
+penetration by outsiders as there are threats at the
+remote terminal, along the communications link, as well
+as at the computer itself.
+Although the security of a password encryption algorithm
+is an interesting intellectual and mathematical problem,
+it is only one tiny facet of a very large problem.
+In practice, physical security of the computer, communications
+security of the communications link, and physical control
+of the computer itself loom as far more important issues.
+Perhaps most important of all is control over the actions
+of ex-employees, since they are not under any direct control
+and they may have intimate
+knowledge about the system, its resources, and
+methods of access.
+Good system security involves realistic
+evaluation of the risks not only of deliberate
+attacks but also of casual unauthorized access
+and accidental disclosure.
+.SH
+PROLOGUE
+.PP
+The UNIX system was first implemented with a password file that contained
+the actual passwords of all the users, and for that reason
+the password file had to
+be heavily protected against being either read or written.
+Although historically, this had been the technique used
+for remote-access systems,
+it was completely unsatisfactory for several reasons.
+.PP
+The technique is excessively vulnerable to lapses in
+security.
+Temporary loss of protection can occur when
+the password file is being edited or otherwise modified.
+There is no way to prevent the making of copies by
+privileged users.
+Experience with several earlier remote-access systems
+showed that such lapses occur with frightening frequency.
+Perhaps the most memorable such occasion occurred
+in the early 60's when
+a system administrator on the CTSS system at MIT
+was editing the
+password file and another system administrator was editing
+the daily message that is printed on everyone's terminal
+on login.
+Due to a software design error, the temporary editor files
+of the two users were interchanged and thus, for a time, the password
+file was printed on every terminal when it was logged in.
+.PP
+Once such a lapse in security has been discovered, everyone's
+password must be changed, usually simultaneously, at a considerable
+administrative cost.
+This is not a great matter, but
+far more serious is the high probability of such lapses
+going unnoticed by the system administrators.
+.PP
+Security against unauthorized disclosure of the passwords was,
+in the last analysis, impossible with this system because,
+for example, if the
+contents of the file system are put on to magnetic tape for
+backup, as they must be, then anyone who has physical
+access to the tape
+can read anything on it with no restriction.
+.PP
+Many programs must get information of various kinds
+about the users of the system, and these programs in general
+should have no special permission to read the password file.
+The information which should have been in the password file actually was
+distributed (or replicated) into a number of files, all of
+which had to be updated whenever a user was added to or
+dropped from the system.
+.SH
+THE FIRST SCHEME
+.PP
+The obvious solution is to arrange that the passwords not
+appear in the system at all, and it is not difficult to decide
+that this can be done by encrypting each user's password,
+putting only the encrypted form in the password file, and
+throwing away his original password (the one that
+he typed in).
+When the user later tries to log in to the system, the password
+that he types is encrypted and compared with the encrypted
+version in the password file.
+If the two match, his login attempt is accepted.
+Such a scheme was first described
+in [3, p.91ff.].
+It also seemed advisable to devise
+a system in which neither the password file nor the
+password program itself needed to be
+protected against being read by anyone.
+.PP
+All that was needed to implement these ideas
+was to find a means of encryption that was very difficult
+to invert, even when the encryption program
+is available.
+Most of the standard encryption methods used (in the past)
+for encryption of messages are rather easy to invert.
+A convenient and rather good encryption program happened
+to exist on the system at the time; it simulated the
+M-209 cipher machine [4]
+used by the U.S. Army during World War II.
+It turned out that the M-209 program was usable, but with
+a given key, the ciphers produced by this program are
+trivial to invert.
+It is a much more difficult matter to find out the key
+given the cleartext input and the enciphered output of the program.
+Therefore,
+the password was used not as the text to be encrypted but as the
+key, and a constant was encrypted using this key.
+The encrypted result was entered into the password file.
+.SH
+ATTACKS ON THE FIRST APPROACH
+.PP
+Suppose that the bad guy has available
+the text of the password encryption program and
+the complete password file.
+Suppose also that he has substantial computing
+capacity at his disposal.
+.PP
+One obvious approach to penetrating the password
+mechanism is to attempt to find a general method of inverting
+the encryption algorithm.
+Very possibly this can be done, but few
+successful results
+have come to light, despite substantial efforts extending
+over a period of more than five years.
+The results have not proved to be very useful
+in penetrating systems.
+.PP
+Another approach to penetration is simply to keep trying
+potential
+passwords until one succeeds; this is a general cryptanalytic
+approach called
+.I
+key search.
+.R
+Human beings being what they are, there is a strong tendency
+for people to choose relatively short and simple passwords that
+they can remember.
+Given free choice, most people will choose their passwords
+from a restricted character set (e.g. all lower-case letters),
+and will often choose words or names.
+This human habit makes the key search job a great deal easier.
+.PP
+The critical factor involved in key search is the amount of
+time needed to encrypt a potential password and to check the result
+against an entry in the password file.
+The running time to encrypt one trial password and check
+the result turned out to be approximately 1.25 milliseconds on
+a PDP-11/70 when the encryption algorithm was recoded for
+maximum speed.
+It is takes essentially no more time to test the encrypted
+trial password against all the passwords in
+an entire password file, or for that matter, against
+any collection of encrypted passwords, perhaps collected
+from many installations.
+.PP
+If we want to check all passwords of length
+.I
+n
+.R
+that consist entirely of lower-case letters, the number
+of such passwords is $26 sup n$.
+If we suppose that the password consists of
+printable characters only, then the number of possible passwords
+is somewhat less than $95 sup n$.
+(The standard system ``character erase'' and ``line kill''
+characters are, for example, not prime
+candidates.)
+We can immediately estimate the running time of a program that
+will test every password of a given length with all of its
+characters chosen from some set of characters.
+The following table gives estimates of the running time
+required on a PDP-11/70
+to test all possible character strings of length $n$
+chosen from various sets of characters: namely, all lower-case
+letters, all lower-case letters plus digits,
+all alphanumeric characters, all 95 printable
+ASCII characters, and finally all 128 ASCII characters.
+.TS
+cccccc
+cccccc
+nnnnnn.
+	26 lower-case	36 lower-case letters	62 alphanumeric	95 printable	all 128 ASCII
+n	letters	and digits	characters	characters	characters
+.sp .5
+1	30 msec.	40 msec.	80 msec.	120 msec.	160 msec.
+2	800 msec.	2 sec.	5 sec.	11 sec.	20 sec.
+3	22 sec.	58 sec.	5 min.	17 min.	43 min.
+4	10 min.	35 min.	5 hrs.	28 hrs.	93 hrs.
+5	4 hrs.	21 hrs.	318 hrs.
+6	107 hrs.
+.TE
+.LP
+One has to conclude that it is no great matter for someone with
+access to a PDP-11 to test all lower-case alphabetic strings up
+to length five
+and, given access to the machine for, say, several weekends, to test
+all such strings up to six characters in length.
+By using such a program against a collection of actual encrypted
+passwords, a substantial fraction of all the passwords will be
+found.
+.PP
+Another profitable approach for the bad guy is to use the word
+list from a dictionary or to use a list of names.
+For example, a large commercial dictionary contains typicallly about
+250,000 words; these words can be checked in about five minutes.
+Again, a noticeable fraction of any collection of passwords
+will be found.
+Improvements and extensions will be (and have been) found by
+a determined bad guy.
+Some ``good'' things to try are:
+.IP -
+The dictionary with the words spelled backwards.
+.IP -
+A list of first names (best obtained from some mailing list).
+Last names, street names, and city names also work well.
+.IP -
+The above with initial upper-case letters.
+.IP -
+All valid license plate numbers in your state.
+(This takes about five hours in New Jersey.)
+.IP -
+Room numbers, social security numbers, telephone numbers, and
+the like.
+.PP
+The authors have conducted experiments to try to determine
+typical users' habits in the choice of passwords when no
+constraint is put on their choice.
+The results were disappointing, except to the bad guy.
+In a collection of 3,289 passwords
+gathered from many users over a long period of time;
+.IP
+15 were a single ASCII character;
+.IP
+72 were strings of two ASCII characters;
+.IP
+464 were strings of three ASCII characters;
+.IP
+477 were string of four alphamerics;
+.IP
+706 were five letters, all upper-case or all lower-case;
+.IP
+605 were six letters, all lower-case.
+.LP
+An additional 492 passwords appeared in various available
+dictionaries, name lists, and the like.
+A total of 2,831, or 86% of this sample of passwords fell into one of
+these classes.
+.PP
+There was, of course, considerable overlap between the
+dictionary results and the character string searches.
+The dictionary search alone, which required only five
+minutes to run, produced about one third of the passwords.
+.PP
+Users could be urged (or forced) to use either longer passwords
+or passwords chosen from a larger character set, or the system
+could itself choose passwords for the users.
+.SH
+AN ANECDOTE
+.PP
+An entertaining and instructive example is
+the attempt made at one installation to force users to use less predictable
+passwords.
+The users did not choose their own passwords; the system supplied
+them.
+The supplied passwords were eight characters long and 
+were taken from the character set consisting of
+lower-case letters and digits.
+They were generated by a pseudo-random number generator
+with only $2 sup 15$ starting values.
+The time required to search (again on a PDP-11/70) through
+all character strings of length 8 from a 36-character
+alphabet is 112 years.
+.PP
+Unfortunately, only $2 sup 15$ of them need be looked at,
+because that is the number of possible outputs of the random
+number generator.
+The bad guy did, in fact, generate and test each of these strings
+and found every one of the system-generated passwords using
+a total of only about one minute of machine time.
+.SH
+IMPROVEMENTS TO THE FIRST APPROACH
+.NH
+Slower Encryption
+.PP
+Obviously, the first algorithm used was far too fast.
+The announcement of the DES encryption algorithm [2]
+by the National Bureau of Standards
+was timely and fortunate.
+The DES is, by design, hard to invert, but equally valuable
+is the fact that it is extremely slow when implemented in
+software.
+The DES was implemented and used in the following way:
+The first eight characters of the user's password are
+used as a key for the DES; then the algorithm
+is used to encrypt a constant.
+Although this constant is zero at the moment, it is easily
+accessible and can be made installation-dependent.
+Then the DES algorithm is iterated 25 times and the
+resulting 64 bits are repacked to become a string of
+11 printable characters.
+.NH
+Less Predictable Passwords
+.PP
+The password entry program was modified so as to urge
+the user to use more obscure passwords.
+If the user enters an alphabetic password (all upper-case or
+all lower-case) shorter than six characters, or a
+password from a larger character set shorter than five
+characters, then the program asks him to enter a
+longer password.
+This further reduces the efficacy of key search.
+.PP
+These improvements make it exceedingly difficult to find
+any individual password.
+The user is warned of the risks and if he cooperates,
+he is very safe indeed.
+On the other hand, he is not prevented from using
+his spouse's name if he wants to.
+.NH
+Salted Passwords
+.PP
+The key search technique is still
+likely to turn up a few passwords when it is used
+on a large collection of passwords, and it seemed wise to make this
+task as difficult as possible.
+To this end, when a password is first entered, the password program
+obtains a 12-bit random number (by reading the real-time clock)
+and appends this to the password typed in by the user.
+The concatenated string is encrypted and both the
+12-bit random quantity (called the $salt$) and the 64-bit
+result of the encryption are entered into the password
+file.
+.PP
+When the user later logs in to the system, the 12-bit
+quantity is extracted from the password file and appended
+to the typed password.
+The encrypted result is required, as before, to be the same as the
+remaining 64 bits in the password file.
+This modification does not increase the task of finding
+any individual
+password,
+starting from scratch,
+but now the work of testing a given character string
+against a large collection of encrypted passwords has
+been multiplied by 4096 ($2 sup 12$).
+The reason for this is that there are 4096 encrypted
+versions of each password and one of them has been picked more
+or less at random by the system.
+.PP
+With this modification,
+it is likely that the bad guy can spend days of computer
+time trying to find a password on a system with hundreds
+of passwords, and find none at all.
+More important is the fact that it becomes impractical
+to prepare an encrypted dictionary in advance.
+Such an encrypted dictionary could be used to crack
+new passwords in milliseconds when they appear.
+.PP
+There is a (not inadvertent) side effect of this
+modification.
+It becomes nearly impossible to find out whether a
+person with passwords on two or more systems has used
+the same password on all of them,
+unless you already know that.
+.NH
+The Threat of the DES Chip
+.PP
+Chips to perform the DES encryption are already commercially
+available and they are very fast.
+The use of such a chip speeds up the process of password
+hunting by three orders of magnitude.
+To avert this possibility, one of the internal tables
+of the DES algorithm
+(in particular, the so-called E-table)
+is changed in a way that depends on the 12-bit random
+number.
+The E-table is inseparably wired into the DES chip,
+so that the commercial chip cannot be used.
+Obviously, the bad guy could have his own chip designed and
+built, but the cost would be unthinkable.
+.NH
+A Subtle Point
+.PP
+To login successfully on the UNIX system, it is necessary
+after dialing in to type a valid user name, and then the
+correct password for that user name.
+It is poor design to write the login command in such a way that it
+tells an interloper when he has typed in a invalid user name.
+The response to an invalid name should be identical to
+that for a valid name.
+.PP
+When the slow encryption algorithm was first implemented,
+the encryption was done only if the user name was valid,
+because otherwise there was no encrypted password to
+compare with the supplied password.
+The result was that the response was delayed
+by about one-half second if the name was valid, but was
+immediate if invalid.
+The bad guy could find out
+whether a particular user name was valid.
+The routine was modified to do the encryption in either
+case.
+.SH
+CONCLUSIONS
+.PP
+On the issue of password security, UNIX is probably
+better than most systems.
+The use of encrypted passwords appears reasonably
+secure in the absence of serious attention of experts
+in the field.
+.PP
+It is also worth some effort to conceal even the encrypted
+passwords.
+Some UNIX systems have instituted what is called an
+``external security code'' that must be typed when
+dialing into the system, but before logging in.
+If this code is changed periodically, then someone
+with an old password will likely be prevented from
+using it.
+.PP
+Whenever any security procedure is instituted that attempts
+to deny access to unauthorized persons, it is wise to
+keep a record of both successful and unsuccessful attempts
+to get at the secured resource.
+Just as an out-of-hours visitor to a computer center normally
+must not only identify himself, but a record is usually also kept of
+his entry.
+Just so, it is a wise precaution to make and keep a record
+of all attempts to log into a remote-access time-sharing
+system, and certainly all unsuccessful attempts.
+.PP
+Bad guys fall on a spectrum whose one end is someone with
+ordinary access to a system and whose goal is to find
+out a particular password (usually that of the super-user)
+and, at the other end, someone who wishes to collect as
+much password information as possible from as many systems
+as possible.
+Most of the work reported here serves to frustrate the latter type;
+our experience indicates that the former type of bad guy never
+was very successful.
+.PP
+We recognize that a time-sharing system must operate in a
+hostile environment.
+We did not attempt to hide the security aspects of the operating
+system, thereby playing the customary make-believe game in
+which weaknesses of the system are not discussed no matter
+how apparent.
+Rather we advertised the password algorithm and invited attack
+in the belief that this approach would minimize future trouble.
+The approach has been successful.
+.SG MH-1271-RM/KT
+.SH
+References
+.IP [1]
+Ritchie, D.M. and Thompson, K.
+The UNIX Time-Sharing System.
+.I
+Comm. ACM
+.B
+17
+.R
+(July 1974),
+pp. 365-375.
+.IP [2]
+.I
+Proposed Federal Information Processing Data Encryption Standard.
+.R
+Federal Register (40FR12134), March 17, 1975
+.IP [3]
+Wilkes, M. V.
+.I
+Time-Sharing Computer Systems.
+.R
+American Elsevier,
+New York, (1968).
+.IP [4]
+U. S. Patent Number 2,089,603.
diff --git a/usr/doc/security b/usr/doc/security
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..c1ae3968be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/security
@@ -0,0 +1,351 @@
+.ND June 10, 1977
+.TL
+On the Security of UNIX
+.AU
+Dennis M. Ritchie
+.AI
+.MH
+.PP
+Recently there has been much interest in the security
+aspects of operating systems and software.
+At issue is the ability
+to prevent undesired
+disclosure of information, destruction of information,
+and harm to the functioning of the system.
+This paper discusses the degree of security which can be provided
+under the
+.UX
+system and offers a number of hints
+on how to improve security.
+.PP
+The first fact to face is that
+.UX
+was not developed with
+security, in any realistic sense, in mind;
+this fact alone guarantees a vast number of holes.
+(Actually the same statement can be made with respect
+to most systems.)
+The area of security in which
+.UX
+is theoretically weakest is
+in protecting against crashing or at least crippling
+the operation of the system.
+The problem here is not mainly in uncritical
+acceptance of bad parameters to system calls\(em
+there may be bugs in this area, but none are known\(em
+but rather in lack of checks for excessive
+consumption of resources.
+Most notably, there is no limit on the amount of disk
+storage used, either in total space allocated or in
+the number of files or directories.
+Here is a particularly ghastly shell sequence guaranteed
+to stop the system:
+.DS
+while : ; do
+	mkdir x
+	cd x
+done
+.DE
+Either a panic will occur because all the i-nodes
+on the device are used up, or all the disk blocks will
+be consumed, thus preventing anyone from writing files
+on the device.
+.PP
+In this version of the system,
+users are prevented from creating more than
+a set number of processes simultaneously,
+so unless users are in collusion it is unlikely that any one
+can stop the system altogether.
+However, creation of 20 or so CPU or disk-bound jobs
+leaves few resources available for others.
+Also, if many large jobs are run simultaneously,
+swap space may run out, causing a panic.
+.PP
+It should be evident that excessive consumption of disk
+space, files, swap space, and processes can easily occur
+accidentally in malfunctioning programs
+as well as at command level.
+In fact
+.UX
+is essentially defenseless against this kind of
+abuse,
+nor is there any easy fix.
+The best that can be said is that it is generally
+fairly
+easy to detect what has happened when disaster
+strikes,
+to identify the user responsible,
+and take appropriate action.
+In practice,
+we have found that difficulties
+in this area are rather rare,
+but we have not been faced with malicious users,
+and enjoy a fairly generous supply of
+resources which have served to cushion us against
+accidental overconsumption.
+.PP
+The picture is considerably brighter
+in the area of protection of information
+from unauthorized perusal and destruction.
+Here the degree of security seems (almost)
+adequate theoretically, and the problems lie
+more in the necessity for care in the actual use of
+the system.
+.PP
+Each
+.UX
+file has associated with it
+eleven bits of protection information
+together with a user identification number and a user-group
+identification number
+(UID and GID).
+Nine of the protection bits
+are used to specify independently
+permission to read, to write, and to execute the file
+to the user himself, to members of the user's
+group, and to all other users.
+Each process generated
+by or for a user has associated with
+it an effective UID and a real UID, and an effective and real GID.
+When an attempt is made
+to access the file for reading, writing, or execution,
+the user process's effective UID is compared
+against the file's UID; if a match is obtained,
+access is granted provided the read, write, or execute
+bit respectively for the user himself is
+present.
+If the UID for the file and for the process fail to match,
+but the GID's do match, the group bits are used; if the GID's
+do not match, the bits for other users are tested.
+The last two bits of each file's protection information,
+called the set-UID and set-GID bits,
+are used only when the
+file is executed as a program.
+If, in this case, the set-UID bit is on for the file,
+the effective UID for the process is changed to the UID
+associated with the file; the change persists
+until the process terminates or until the UID
+changed again by another execution of a set-UID file.
+Similarly the effective group ID of a process is changed
+to the GID associated with a file
+when that file is executed and has the set-GID bit set.
+The real UID and GID of a process do not change
+when any file is executed,
+but only as the result of a privileged system
+call.
+.PP
+The basic notion of the set-UID and set-GID
+bits is that one may write a program which is executable
+by others and which maintains files accessible to others only
+by that program.
+The classical example is the game-playing program which
+maintains records of the scores of its players.
+The program itself has to read and write the score file,
+but
+no one but the game's sponsor can be allowed
+unrestricted access to the file lest they manipulate
+the game to their own advantage.
+The solution is to
+turn on the set-UID bit of the
+game
+program.
+When, and only when, it is invoked
+by players of the game, it may update the score file
+but ordinary programs executed by others cannot
+access the score.
+.PP
+There are a number of special cases involved
+in determining access permissions.
+Since executing a directory as a program is a meaningless
+operation, the execute-permission
+bit, for directories, is taken instead to mean
+permission to search the directory for a given file
+during the scanning of a path name;
+thus if a directory has execute permission but no read
+permission for a given user, he may access files
+with known names in the directory,
+but may not read (list) the entire contents of the
+directory.
+Write permission on a directory is interpreted to
+mean that the user may create and delete
+files in that directory;
+it is impossible
+for any user to write directly into any directory.
+.PP
+Another, and from the point of view of security, much
+more serious special case is that there is a ``super user''
+who is able to read any file and write any non-directory.
+The super-user is also able to change the protection
+mode and the owner UID and GID of any file
+and to invoke privileged system calls.
+It must be recognized that the mere notion of
+a super-user is a theoretical, and usually
+practical, blemish on any protection scheme.
+.PP
+The first necessity for a secure system
+is of course arranging that all files and directories
+have the proper protection modes.
+Traditionally,
+.UX
+software has been exceedingly
+permissive in this regard;
+essentially all commands create files
+readable and writable by everyone.
+In the current version,
+this policy may be easily adjusted to suit the needs of
+the installation or the individual user.
+Associated with each process and its descendants
+is a mask, which is in effect
+.I and\fR\|-ed
+with the mode of every file and directory created by
+that process.
+In this way, users can arrange that, by default,
+all their files are no more accessible than they wish.
+The standard mask, set by
+.I login,
+allows all permissions to the user himself and to his group,
+but disallows writing by others.
+.PP
+To maintain both data privacy and
+data integrity,
+it is necessary, and largely sufficient,
+to make one's files inaccessible to others.
+The lack of sufficiency could follow
+from the existence of set-UID programs
+created by the user
+and the possibility of total
+breach of system security
+in one of the ways discussed below
+(or one of the ways not discussed below).
+For greater protection,
+an encryption scheme is available.
+Since the editor is able to create encrypted
+documents, and the
+.I crypt
+command can be used to pipe such documents into
+the other text-processing programs,
+the length of time during which cleartext versions
+need be available is strictly limited.
+The encryption scheme used is not one of the strongest
+known, but it is judged adequate, in the sense that
+cryptanalysis
+is likely to require considerably more effort than more direct
+methods of reading the encrypted files.
+For example, a user who stores data that he regards as truly secret
+should be aware that he is implicitly trusting the system
+administrator not to install a version of the crypt command
+that stores every typed password in a file.
+.PP
+Needless to say, the system administrators
+must be at least as careful as their most
+demanding user to place the correct
+protection mode on the files under their
+control.
+In particular,
+it is necessary that special files be protected
+from writing, and probably reading, by ordinary
+users when
+they store sensitive files belonging to other
+users.
+It is easy to write programs that examine and change
+files by accessing the device
+on which the files live.
+.PP
+On the issue of password security,
+.UX
+is probably better than most systems.
+Passwords are stored in an encrypted form
+which, in the absence of serious attention
+from specialists in the field,
+appears reasonably secure,
+provided its limitations are understood.
+In the current version, it is based on a slightly
+defective version of the Federal DES;
+it is purposely defective so that
+easily-available hardware is useless for attempts at exhaustive
+key-search.
+Since both the encryption algorithm and the encrypted passwords
+are available,
+exhaustive enumeration of potential passwords
+is still feasible up to a point.
+We have observed that users choose passwords that are easy to guess:
+they are short, or from a limited alphabet, or
+in a dictionary.
+Passwords should be
+at least six characters long and randomly chosen from an alphabet
+which includes digits and special characters.
+.PP
+Of course there also exist
+feasible non-cryptanalytic
+ways of finding out passwords.
+For example: write a program which types out ``login:\|''
+on the typewriter and copies whatever is typed
+to a file of your own.
+Then invoke the command and go away until the victim arrives.
+.PP
+The set-UID (set-GID)
+notion must be used carefully if any security is to be maintained.
+The first thing to keep in mind is that
+a writable set-UID file can have another program copied onto it.
+For example, if the super-user
+.I (su)
+command is writable,
+anyone can copy the shell
+onto it and get a password-free version
+of
+.I su.
+A more subtle problem
+can come from
+set-UID programs which are not sufficiently
+careful of what is fed into them.
+To take an obsolete example,
+the previous version of the
+.I mail
+command was set-UID and owned by the super-user.
+This version sent mail to the recipient's own directory.
+The notion was that one should be able to send
+mail to anyone even if they want to protect
+their directories from writing.
+The trouble was that
+.I mail
+was rather dumb:
+anyone could mail someone else's private file to himself.
+Much more serious
+is the following scenario:
+make a file with a line like one in the password file
+which allows one to log in as the super-user.
+Then make a link named ``.mail'' to the password file
+in some writable
+directory on the same device as the password file (say /tmp).
+Finally mail the bogus login line to /tmp/.mail;
+You can then login as the super-user,
+clean up the incriminating evidence,
+and have your will.
+.PP
+The fact that users can mount their own disks and tapes
+as file systems
+can be another way of gaining super-user status.
+Once a disk pack is mounted, the system believes
+what is on it.
+Thus one can take a blank disk pack,
+put on it anything desired,
+and mount it.
+There are obvious and unfortunate consequences.
+For example:
+a mounted disk with garbage on it will crash the
+system;
+one of the files on the mounted disk can easily be
+a password-free version of
+.I su;
+other files can be unprotected entries for special files.
+The only easy fix for this problem is to
+forbid the use of
+.I mount
+to unprivileged users.
+A partial solution, not so restrictive,
+would be to have the
+.I mount
+command examine the special file for bad data,
+set-UID programs owned by others, and accessible
+special files,
+and balk at unprivileged invokers.
diff --git a/usr/doc/sed b/usr/doc/sed
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..e0333b3b1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/sed
@@ -0,0 +1,1259 @@
+.hw de-limit
+.hw de-limit-ing
+.RP
+....TM 78-1270-1 39199 39199-11
+.ND August 15, 1978
+.TL
+SED \(em A Non-interactive Text Editor
+.AU "MH 2C-555" 3302
+Lee E. McMahon
+.AI
+.MH
+.OK
+Context search
+Editing
+.AB
+.ul
+Sed
+is a non-interactive context editor
+that runs on the
+.UX
+operating system.
+.ul
+Sed
+is
+designed to be especially useful in
+three cases:
+.in +1i
+.LP
+.ti -.5i
+1)
+To edit files too large for comfortable
+interactive editing;
+.ti -.5i
+2)
+To edit any size file when the sequence
+of editing commands is too complicated to be comfortably
+typed in interactive mode.
+.ti -.5i
+3)
+To perform multiple `global' editing functions
+efficiently in one pass through the input.
+.in -1i
+.LP
+This memorandum constitutes a manual for users of
+.ul
+sed.
+.AE
+.CS 10 0 10 0 0 1
+.SH
+Introduction
+.LP
+.ul
+Sed
+is a non-interactive context editor designed to be especially useful in
+three cases:
+.in +1i
+.LP
+.ti -.5i
+1)
+To edit files too large for comfortable
+interactive editing;
+.ti -.5i
+2)
+To edit any size file when the sequence
+of editing commands is too complicated to be comfortably
+typed in interactive mode;
+.ti -.5i
+3)
+To perform multiple `global' editing functions
+efficiently in one pass through the input.
+.in -1i
+.LP
+Since only a few lines of the input reside in core
+at one time, and no temporary files are used,
+the effective size of file that can be edited is limited only
+by the requirement that the input and output fit simultaneously
+into available secondary storage.
+.LP
+Complicated editing scripts can be created separately and given
+to 
+.ul
+sed
+as a command file.
+For complex edits, this saves considerable typing, and its
+attendant errors.
+.ul
+Sed
+running from a command file is much more efficient than any interactive
+editor known to the author, even if that editor
+can be driven by a pre-written script.
+.LP
+The principal loss of functions compared to an interactive editor
+are lack of relative addressing (because of the line-at-a-time
+operation), and lack of immediate verification that a command has
+done what was intended.
+.LP
+.ul
+Sed
+is a lineal descendant of the UNIX editor,
+.ul
+ed.
+Because of the differences between interactive and non-interactive
+operation, considerable changes have been made between
+.ul
+ed
+and
+.ul
+sed;
+even confirmed users of
+.ul
+ed
+will frequently be surprised (and probably chagrined),
+if they rashly use 
+.ul
+sed
+without reading Sections 2 and 3 of this document.
+The most striking family resemblance between the two
+editors is in the class of patterns (`regular expressions') they
+recognize;
+the code for matching patterns is copied almost
+verbatim from the code for
+.ul
+ed,
+and the description of regular expressions in Section 2
+is copied almost verbatim from the UNIX Programmer's
+Manual[1]. (Both code and description were written by Dennis
+M. Ritchie.)
+.LP
+.SH
+1. Overall Operation
+.LP
+.ul
+Sed
+by default copies the standard input to the standard output,
+perhaps performing one or more editing commands on each
+line before writing it to the output.
+This behavior may be modified by flags on the command line;
+see Section 1.1 below.
+.LP
+The general format of an editing command is:
+.LP
+.in +1i
+[address1,address2][function][arguments]
+.LP
+.in -1i
+One or both addresses may be omitted; the format of addresses is
+given in Section 2.
+Any number of blanks or tabs may separate the addresses
+from the function.
+The function must be present; the available commands are discussed
+in Section 3.
+The arguments may be required or optional, according to which function
+is given; again, they are discussed in Section 3 under each individual
+function.
+.LP
+Tab characters and spaces at the beginning of lines are ignored.
+.LP
+.SH
+1.1. Command-line Flags
+.LP
+Three flags are recognized on the command line:
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+.B
+-n:
+.R
+tells
+.ul
+sed
+not to copy all lines, but only those specified by
+.ul
+p
+functions or
+.ul
+p
+flags after 
+.ul
+s
+functions (see Section 3.3);
+.ti -.5i
+.B
+-e:
+.R
+tells
+.ul
+sed
+to take the next argument as an editing command;
+.ti -.5i
+.B
+-f:
+.R
+tells
+.ul
+sed
+to take the next argument as a file name;
+the file should contain editing commands, one to a line.
+.in -1i
+.SH
+1.2. Order of Application of Editing Commands
+.LP
+Before any editing is done (in fact, before any input file is
+even opened), all the editing commands are compiled into
+a form which will be moderately efficient during
+the execution phase (when the commands are actually applied to
+lines of the input file).
+The commands are compiled in the order in which they are
+encountered; this is generally the order in which they will
+be attempted at execution time.
+The commands are applied one at a time; the input to each command
+is the output of all preceding commands.
+.LP
+The default linear order of application of editing commands can
+be changed by the flow-of-control commands,
+.ul
+t
+and
+.ul
+b
+(see Section 3).
+Even when the order of application is changed
+by these commands, it is still true that the input line to any
+command is the output of any previously applied command.
+.SH
+1.3.  Pattern-space
+.LP
+The range of pattern matches is called the pattern space.
+Ordinarily, the pattern space is one line of the input text,
+but more than one line can be read into the pattern space
+by using the
+.ul
+N
+command (Section 3.6.).
+.LP
+.SH
+1.4. Examples
+.LP
+Examples are scattered throughout the text.
+Except where otherwise noted,
+the examples all assume the following input text:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
+A stately pleasure dome decree:
+Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
+Through caverns measureless to man
+Down to a sunless sea.
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+(In no case is the output of the 
+.ul
+sed
+commands to be considered an improvement
+on Coleridge.)
+.LP
+.SH
+Example:
+.LP
+The command
+.in +.5i
+.LP
+2q
+.in -.5i
+.LP
+will quit after copying the first two lines of the input.
+The output will be:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
+A stately pleasure dome decree:
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+.SH
+2. ADDRESSES: Selecting lines for editing
+.LP
+Lines in the input file(s) to which editing commands are
+to be applied can be selected by addresses.
+Addresses may be either line numbers or context addresses.
+.LP
+The application of a group of commands can be controlled by
+one address (or address-pair) by grouping
+the commands with curly braces (`{ }')(Sec. 3.6.).
+.SH
+2.1. Line-number Addresses
+.LP
+A line number is a decimal integer.
+As each line is read from the input, a line-number counter
+is incremented;
+a line-number address matches (selects) the input
+line which causes the internal counter to equal the
+address line-number.
+The counter runs cumulatively through multiple input files;
+it is not reset when a new input file is opened.
+.LP
+As a special case, the character
+$
+matches the last line of the last input file.
+.SH
+2.2. Context Addresses
+.LP
+A context address is a pattern (`regular expression') enclosed in slashes (`/').
+The regular expressions recognized by
+.ul
+sed
+are constructed as follows:
+.in +1i
+.LP
+.ti -.5i
+1)
+An ordinary character (not one of those discussed below)
+is a regular expression, and matches that character.
+.LP
+.ti -.5i
+2)
+A circumflex `^' at the beginning of a regular expression
+matches the null character at the beginning of a line.
+.ti -.5i
+3)
+A dollar-sign `$' at the end of a regular expression
+matches the null character at the end of a line.
+.ti -.5i
+4)
+The characters `\en' match an imbedded newline character,
+but not the newline at the end of the pattern space.
+.ti -.5i
+5)
+A period `.' matches any character except the terminal newline
+of the pattern space.
+.ti -.5i
+6)
+A regular expression followed by an asterisk `*' matches any
+number (including 0) of adjacent occurrences of the regular
+expression it follows.
+.ti -.5i
+7)
+A string of characters in square brackets `[ ]' matches any character
+in the string, and no others.
+If, however, the first character of the string is circumflex `^',
+the regular expression matches any character
+.ul
+except
+the characters in the string and the terminal newline of the pattern space.
+.ti -.5i
+8)
+A concatenation of regular expressions is a regular expression
+which matches the concatenation of strings matched by the
+components of the regular expression.
+.ti -.5i
+9)
+A regular expression between the sequences `\e(' and `\e)' is
+identical in effect to the unadorned regular expression, but has
+side-effects which are described under the
+.ul
+s
+command below and specification 10) immediately below.
+.ti -.5i
+10)
+The expression
+.ul
+`\|\ed'
+means the same string of characters matched
+by an expression enclosed in `\e(' and `\e)'
+earlier in the same pattern.
+Here
+.ul
+d
+is a single digit;
+the string specified is that beginning with the
+\fId\|\fRth
+occurrence of `\e(' counting from the left.
+For example, the expression
+`^\e(.*\e)\e1' matches a line beginning with
+two repeated occurrences of the same string.
+.ti -.5i
+11)
+The null regular expression standing alone (e.g., `//') is
+equivalent to the  last regular expression compiled.
+.in -1i
+.LP
+To use one of the special characters (^ $ . * [ ] \e /) as a literal
+(to match an occurrence of itself in the input), precede the
+special character by a backslash `\e'.
+.LP
+For a context address to `match' the input requires that
+the whole pattern within the address match some
+portion of the pattern space.
+.SH
+2.3. Number of Addresses
+.LP
+The commands in the next section can have 0, 1, or 2 addresses.
+Under each command the maximum number of allowed addresses is
+given.
+For a command to have more addresses than the maximum allowed
+is considered an error.
+.LP
+If a command has no addresses, it is applied to every line
+in the input.
+.LP
+If a command has one address, it is applied to all
+lines which match that address.
+.LP
+If a command has two addresses, it is applied to the first
+line which matches the first address, and to all subsequent lines
+until (and including) the first subsequent line which matches
+the second address.
+Then an attempt is made on subsequent lines to again match the first
+address, and the process is repeated.
+.LP
+Two addresses are separated by a comma.
+.SH
+Examples:
+.LP
+.nf
+.in +.5i
+.ta 1i 2i
+/an/	matches lines 1, 3, 4 in our sample text
+/an.*an/	matches line 1
+/^an/	matches no lines
+/./	matches all lines
+/\e./	matches line 5
+/r*an/	matches lines 1,3, 4 (number = zero!)
+/\e(an\e).*\e1/	matches line 1
+.fi
+.in 0
+.LP
+.SH
+3. FUNCTIONS
+.LP
+All functions are named by a single character.
+In the following summary, the maximum number of allowable addresses
+is given enclosed in parentheses, then the single character
+function name, possible arguments enclosed in angles (< >),
+an expanded English translation of the single-character name,
+and finally a description of what each function does.
+The angles around the arguments are
+.ul
+not
+part of the argument, and should not be typed
+in actual editing commands.
+.SH
+3.1. Whole-line Oriented Functions
+.LP
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+(2)d -- delete lines
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+d
+function deletes from the file (does not write to the output)
+all those lines matched by its address(es).
+.if t .sp .5
+It also has the side effect that no further commands are attempted
+on the corpse of a deleted line;
+as soon as the
+.ul
+d
+function is executed, a new line is read from the input, and
+the list of editing commands is re-started from the beginning
+on the new line.
+.ti -.5i
+.if t .sp .5
+(2)n -- next line
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+n
+function reads the next line from the input, replacing
+the current line.
+The current line is written to the output if it should
+be.
+The list of editing commands is continued 
+following the 
+.ul
+n
+command.
+.if t .sp .5
+.nf
+.in -.5i
+(1)a\e
+<text> -- append lines
+.in +.5i
+.fi
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+a
+function causes the argument <text> to be written to the
+output after the line matched by its address.
+The
+.ul
+a
+command is inherently multi-line;
+.ul
+a
+must appear at the end of a line, and <text> may contain
+any number of lines.
+To preserve the one-command-to-a-line fiction,
+the interior newlines must be hidden by a
+backslash character (`\e') immediately preceding the
+newline.
+The <text> argument is terminated by the first unhidden
+newline (the first one not immediately preceded
+by backslash).
+.if t .sp .5
+Once an
+.ul
+a
+function is successfully executed, <text> will be
+written to the output regardless of what later commands do to
+the line which triggered it.
+The triggering line may be 
+deleted entirely; <text> will still be written to the output.
+.if t .sp .5
+The <text> is not scanned for address matches, and no editing
+commands are attempted on it.
+It does not cause any change in the line-number counter.
+.if t .sp .5
+.nf
+.in -.5i
+(1)i\e
+<text> -- insert lines
+.in +.5i
+.fi
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+i
+function  behaves identically to the
+.ul
+a
+function, except that <text> is written to the output
+.ul
+before
+the matched line.
+All other comments about the
+.ul
+a
+function apply to the
+.ul
+i
+function as well.
+.if t .sp .5
+.nf
+.in -.5i
+(2)c\e
+<text> -- change lines
+.in +.5i
+.fi
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+c
+function deletes the lines selected by its address(es),
+and replaces them with the lines in <text>.
+Like
+.ul
+a
+and
+.ul
+i,
+.ul
+c
+must be followed by a newline hidden by a backslash;
+and interior new lines in <text> must be hidden by
+backslashes.
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+c
+command may have two addresses, and therefore select a range
+of lines.
+If it does, all the lines in the range are deleted, but only
+one copy of <text> is written to the output,
+.ul
+not
+one copy per line deleted.
+As with
+.ul
+a
+and
+.ul
+i,
+<text> is not scanned for address matches, and no
+editing commands are attempted on it.
+It does not change the  line-number counter.
+.if t .sp .5
+After a line has been deleted by a
+.ul
+c
+function, no further commands are attempted on the corpse.
+.if t .sp .5
+If text is appended after a line by
+.ul
+a
+or
+.ul
+r
+functions, and the line is subsequently changed, the text
+inserted by the
+.ul
+c
+function will be placed
+.ul
+before
+the text of the
+.ul
+a
+or
+.ul
+r
+functions.
+(The
+.ul
+r
+function is described in Section 3.4.)
+.if t .sp .5
+.in -1i
+.ul
+Note:
+Within the text put in the output by these functions,
+leading blanks and tabs will disappear, as always in 
+.ul
+sed
+commands.
+To get leading blanks and tabs into the output, precede the first
+desired blank or tab by a backslash; the backslash will not
+appear in the output.
+.SH
+Example:
+.LP
+The list of editing commands:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+n
+a\e
+XXXX
+d
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+applied to our standard input, produces:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+In Xanadu did Kubhla Khan
+XXXX
+Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
+XXXX
+Down to a sunless sea.
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+In this particular case,
+the same effect would be produced by either
+of the two following command lists:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+n		n
+i\e		c\e
+XXXX	XXXX
+d
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+.in 0
+.SH
+3.2. Substitute Function
+.LP
+One very important function changes parts of lines selected by
+a context search within the line.
+.if t .sp .5
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+(2)s<pattern><replacement><flags> -- substitute
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+s
+function replaces
+.ul
+part
+of a line (selected by <pattern>) with <replacement>.
+It can best be read:
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti +1i
+Substitute for <pattern>, <replacement>
+.if t .sp .5
+The <pattern> argument contains a pattern,
+exactly like the patterns in addresses (see 2.2 above).
+The only difference between <pattern> and a context address is
+that the context address must be delimited by slash (`/') characters;
+<pattern> may be delimited by any character other than space or
+newline.
+.if t .sp .5
+By default, only the first string matched by <pattern> is replaced,
+but see the
+.ul
+g
+flag below.
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+<replacement> argument begins immediately after the
+second delimiting character of <pattern>, and must be followed
+immediately by another instance of the delimiting character.
+(Thus there are exactly 
+.ul
+three
+instances of the delimiting character.)
+.if t .sp .5
+The <replacement> is not a pattern,
+and the characters which are special in patterns
+do not have special meaning in <replacement>.
+Instead, other characters are special:
+.if t .sp .5
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+&	is replaced by the string matched by <pattern>
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+.ul
+\ed
+(where
+.ul
+d
+is a single digit) is replaced by the \fId\fRth substring
+matched by parts of <pattern> enclosed in `\e(' and `\e)'.
+If nested substrings occur in <pattern>, the \fId\fRth
+is determined by counting opening delimiters (`\e(').
+.if t .sp .5
+As in patterns, special characters may be made
+literal by preceding them with backslash (`\e').
+.if t .sp .5
+.in -1i
+The <flags> argument may contain the following flags:
+.if t .sp .5
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+g -- substitute <replacement> for all (non-overlapping)
+instances of <pattern> in the line.
+After a successful substitution, the scan for the next
+instance of <pattern> begins just after the end of the
+inserted characters; characters put into the line from
+<replacement> are not rescanned.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+p -- print the line if a successful replacement was done.
+The
+.ul
+p
+flag causes the line to be written to the output if and only
+if a substitution was actually made by the
+.ul
+s
+function.
+Notice that if several
+.ul
+s
+functions, each followed by a
+.ul
+p
+flag, successfully substitute in the same input line,
+multiple copies of the line will be written to the
+output: one for each successful substitution.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+w <filename> -- write the line to a file if a successful
+replacement was done.
+The
+.ul
+w
+flag causes lines which are actually substituted by the
+.ul
+s
+function to be written to a file named by <filename>.
+If <filename> exists before
+.ul
+sed
+is run, it is overwritten;
+if not, it is created.
+.if t .sp .5
+A single space must separate
+.ul
+w
+and <filename>.
+.if t .sp .5
+The possibilities of multiple, somewhat different copies of
+one input line being written are the same as for 
+.ul
+p.
+.if t .sp .5
+A maximum of 10 different file names may be mentioned after
+.ul
+w
+flags and
+.ul
+w
+functions (see below), combined.
+.in 0
+.SH
+Examples:
+.LP
+The following command, applied to our standard input,
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+s/to/by/w changes
+.in -.5i
+.LP
+produces, on the standard output:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+In Xanadu did Kubhla Khan
+A stately pleasure dome decree:
+Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
+Through caverns measureless by man
+Down by a sunless sea.
+.fi
+.in -.5i
+.LP
+and, on the file `changes':
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+Through caverns measureless by man
+Down by a sunless sea.
+.fi
+.in -.5i
+.LP
+If the nocopy option is in effect, the command:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+s/[.,;?:]/*P&*/gp
+.fi
+.in -.5i
+.LP
+produces:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+A stately pleasure dome decree*P:*
+Where Alph*P,* the sacred river*P,* ran
+Down to a sunless sea*P.*
+.LP
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+Finally, to illustrate the effect of the
+.ul
+g
+flag,
+the command:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+/X/s/an/AN/p
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+produces (assuming nocopy mode):
+.in +.5i
+.LP
+.nf
+In XANadu did Kubhla Khan
+.fi
+.in -.5i
+.LP
+and the command:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+/X/s/an/AN/gp
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+produces:
+.LP
+.in +.5i
+.nf
+In XANadu did Kubhla KhAN
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+.in 0
+.SH
+3.3. Input-output Functions
+.LP
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+(2)p -- print
+.if t .sp .5
+The print function writes the addressed lines to the standard output file.
+They are written at the time the
+.ul
+p
+function is encountered, regardless of what succeeding
+editing commands may do to the lines.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)w <filename> -- write on <filename>
+.if t .sp .5
+The write function writes the addressed lines to the file named
+by <filename>.
+If the file previously existed, it is overwritten; if not, it is created.
+The lines are written exactly as they exist when the write function
+is encountered for each line, regardless of what subsequent
+editing commands may do to them.
+.if t .sp .5
+Exactly one space must separate the
+.ul
+w
+and <filename>.
+.if t .sp .5
+A maximum of ten different files may be mentioned in write
+functions and
+.ul
+w
+flags after
+.ul
+s
+functions, combined.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(1)r <filename> -- read the contents of a file
+.if t .sp .5
+The read function reads the contents of <filename>, and appends
+them after the line matched by the address.
+The file is read and appended regardless of what subsequent
+editing commands do to the line which matched its address.
+If
+.ul
+r
+and
+.ul
+a
+functions are executed on the same line,
+the text from the 
+.ul
+a
+functions and the
+.ul
+r
+functions is written to the output in the order that
+the functions are executed.
+.if t .sp .5
+Exactly one space must separate the
+.ul
+r
+and <filename>.
+If a file mentioned by a
+.ul
+r
+function cannot be opened, it is considered a null file,
+not an error, and no diagnostic is given.
+.if t .sp .5
+.in -1i
+NOTE:
+Since there is a limit to the number of files that can be opened
+simultaneously, care should be taken that no more than ten
+files be mentioned in
+.ul
+w
+functions or flags; that number is reduced by one if any
+.ul
+r
+functions are present.
+(Only one read file is open at one time.)
+.in 0
+.SH
+Examples
+.LP
+Assume that the file `note1'
+has the following contents:
+.LP
+.in +1i
+Note:  Kubla Khan (more properly Kublai Khan; 1216-1294)
+was the grandson and most eminent successor of Genghiz
+(Chingiz) Khan, and founder of the Mongol dynasty in China.
+.LP
+.in 0
+Then the following command:
+.LP
+.nf
+.in +.5i
+/Kubla/r note1
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+produces:
+.LP
+.nf
+.in +.5i
+In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
+.in +.5i
+.fi
+Note:  Kubla Khan (more properly Kublai Khan; 1216-1294)
+was the grandson and most eminent successor of Genghiz
+(Chingiz) Khan, and founder of the Mongol dynasty in China.
+.in -.5i
+.nf
+A stately pleasure dome decree:
+Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
+Through caverns measureless to man
+Down to a sunless sea.
+.in -.5i
+.fi
+.LP
+.in 0
+.SH
+3.4.
+Multiple Input-line Functions
+.LP
+Three functions, all spelled with capital letters, deal
+specially with pattern spaces containing imbedded newlines;
+they are intended principally to provide pattern matches across
+lines in the input.
+.if t .sp .5
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+(2)N -- Next line
+.if t .sp .5
+The next input line is appended to the current line in the
+pattern space; the two input lines are separated by an imbedded
+newline.
+Pattern matches may extend across the imbedded newline(s).
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)D -- Delete first part of the pattern space
+.if t .sp .5
+Delete up to and including the first newline character
+in the current pattern space.
+If the pattern space becomes empty (the only newline
+was the terminal newline),
+read another line from the input.
+In any case, begin the list of editing commands again
+from its beginning.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)P -- Print first part of the pattern space
+.if t .sp .5
+Print up to and including the first newline in the pattern space.
+.if t .sp .5
+.in 0
+The 
+.ul
+P
+and
+.ul
+D
+functions are equivalent to their lower-case counterparts
+if there are no imbedded newlines in the pattern space.
+.in 0
+.SH
+3.5.  Hold and Get Functions
+.LP
+Four functions save and retrieve part of the input for possible later
+use.
+.if t .sp .5
+.in 1i
+.ti -.5i
+(2)h -- hold pattern space
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+h
+functions copies the contents of the pattern space
+into a hold area (destroying the previous contents of the
+hold area).
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)H -- Hold pattern space
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+H
+function appends the contents of the pattern space
+to the contents of the hold area; the former and new contents
+are separated by a newline.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)g -- get contents of hold area
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+g
+function copies the contents of the hold area into
+the pattern space (destroying the previous contents of the
+pattern space).
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)G -- Get contents of hold area
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+G
+function appends the contents of the hold area to the
+contents of the pattern space; the former and new contents are separated by
+a newline.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)x -- exchange
+.if t .sp .5
+The exchange command interchanges the contents
+of the pattern space and the hold area.
+.in 0
+.SH
+Example
+.LP
+The commands
+.nf
+.if t .sp .5
+	1h
+	1s/ did.*//
+	1x
+	G
+	s/\en/  :/
+.if t .sp .5
+.fi
+applied to our standard example, produce:
+.nf
+.if t .sp .5
+	In Xanadu did Kubla Khan  :In Xanadu
+	A stately pleasure dome decree:  :In Xanadu
+	Where Alph, the sacred river, ran  :In Xanadu
+	Through caverns measureless to man  :In Xanadu
+	Down to a sunless sea.  :In Xanadu
+.if t .sp .5
+.fi
+.SH
+3.6.  Flow-of-Control Functions
+.LP
+These functions do no editing on the input
+lines, but control the application of functions
+to the lines selected by the address part.
+.if t .sp .5
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+(2)! -- Don't
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+Don't
+command causes the next command
+(written on the same line), to be applied to all and only those input lines
+.ul
+not
+selected by the adress part.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2){ -- Grouping
+.if t .sp .5
+The grouping command `{' causes the
+next set of commands to be applied
+(or not applied) as a block to the
+input lines selected by the addresses
+of the grouping command.
+The first of the commands under control of the grouping
+may appear on the same line as the
+`{' or on the next line.
+.LP
+The group of commands is terminated by a
+matching `}' standing on a line by itself.
+.LP
+Groups can be nested.
+.ti -.5i
+.if t .sp .5
+(0):<label> -- place a label
+.if t .sp .5
+The label function marks a place in the list
+of editing commands which may be referred to by
+.ul
+b
+and
+.ul
+t
+functions.
+The <label> may be any sequence of eight or fewer characters;
+if two different colon functions have identical labels,
+a compile time diagnostic will be generated, and
+no execution attempted.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)b<label> -- branch to label
+.if t .sp .5
+The branch function causes  the sequence of editing commands being
+applied to the current input line to be restarted immediately
+after the place where a colon function with the same <label>
+was encountered.
+If no colon function with the same label can be found after
+all the editing commands have been compiled, a compile time diagnostic
+is produced, and no execution is attempted.
+.if t .sp .5
+A
+.ul
+b
+function with no <label> is taken to be a branch to the end of the
+list of editing commands;
+whatever should be done with the current input line is done, and
+another input line is read; the list of editing commands is restarted from the
+beginning on the new line.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(2)t<label> -- test substitutions
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+t
+function tests whether 
+.ul
+any
+successful substitutions have been made on the current input
+line;
+if so, it branches to <label>;
+if not, it does nothing.
+The flag which indicates that a successful substitution has
+been executed is reset by:
+.if t .sp .5
+.in +1i
+1) reading a new input line, or
+.br
+2) executing a
+.ul
+t
+function.
+.if t .sp .5
+.in 0
+.SH
+3.7. Miscellaneous Functions
+.LP
+.in +1i
+.ti -.5i
+(1)= -- equals
+.if t .sp .5
+The = function writes to the standard output the line number of the
+line matched by its address.
+.if t .sp .5
+.ti -.5i
+(1)q -- quit
+.if t .sp .5
+The
+.ul
+q
+function causes the current line to be written to the
+output (if it should be), any appended or read text to be written, and
+execution to be terminated.
+.in 0
+.SH
+.SH
+Reference
+.IP [1]
+Ken Thompson and Dennis M. Ritchie,
+.ul
+The UNIX Programmer's Manual.
+Bell Laboratories, 1978.
diff --git a/usr/doc/tbl b/usr/doc/tbl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..173734a35d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/doc/tbl
@@ -0,0 +1,1889 @@
+.if \nM=0 .RP
+.TM 76-1274-5 39199 39199-11
+.if \n(tm>0 .ND June 11, 1976*
+.TL
+Tbl \(em A Program to Format Tables
+.AU "MH 2C-569" 6377
+M. E. Lesk
+.AI
+.MH
+.if \n(tm>0 .FS
+.if \n(tm>0 * This printing revised through August 5, 1977
+.if \n(tm>0 .FE
+.AB
+.I
+Tbl
+.R
+is a document formatting preprocessor for
+.I
+troff
+.R
+or
+.I
+nroff
+.R
+which makes
+even
+fairly complex tables easy to specify and enter.
+It is available on
+the
+.SM
+PDP-11 UNIX*
+.NL
+system
+.FS
+* UNIX is a Trademark/Service Mark of the Bell System
+.FE
+and on Honeywell 6000
+.SM
+GCOS.
+.NL
+Tables are made up of columns which may be independently centered, right-adjusted,
+left-adjusted, or aligned by decimal points.
+Headings may be placed over single columns or groups of columns.
+A table entry may contain equations, or may consist of several rows of text.
+Horizontal or vertical lines may be drawn as desired
+in the table,
+and any table or element may be enclosed in a box.
+For example:
+.in 0
+.ll
+.sp .5
+.TS
+center, box;
+c  s  s  s
+c  s  s  s
+c |c |c |c
+c |c |c |c
+l |n |n |n.
+1970 Federal Budget Transfers
+\s-2(in billions of dollars)\s0
+=
+State	Taxes	Money	Net
+\^	collected	spent	\^
+_
+New York	22.91	21.35	\-1.56
+New Jersey	8.33	6.96	\-1.37
+Connecticut	4.12	3.10	\-1.02
+Maine	0.74	0.67	\-0.07
+California	22.29	22.42	+0.13
+New Mexico	0.70	1.49	+0.79
+Georgia	3.30	4.28	+0.98
+Mississippi	1.15	2.32	+1.17
+Texas	9.33	11.13	+1.80
+.TE
+.AE
+.OK
+Phototypesetting
+Documentation
+.CS  16 0 16 0 12 6
+.tr # 
+.de e1
+.nr \\$1 \\$2
+..
+.de e2
+.if !\\n(\\$1=\\n% .tm Error in example \\$1: referred to page \\n(\\$1, is on page \\n%
+.rr \\$1
+..
+.di qq
+.EQ
+delim $$
+.EN
+.di
+.rm qq
+.SH
+Introduction.
+.PP
+.I
+Tbl
+.R
+turns a simple description
+of a table into a
+.I
+troff
+.R
+or
+.I
+nroff
+.R
+[1]
+program (list of commands) that prints the table.
+.I
+Tbl
+.R
+may be used on the
+\s-2PDP-\s011 \s-2UNIX\s0
+.NL
+[2] system and on the Honeywell 6000
+.SM
+GCOS
+.NL
+system.
+It
+attempts to isolate a portion of a job that it can
+successfully
+handle and leave the remainder for other programs.
+Thus
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+may be used with the equation formatting
+program
+.I
+eqn
+.R
+[3]
+or various
+layout macro packages
+[4,5,6],
+but does not duplicate their functions.
+.PP
+This memorandum is divided into two parts.
+First we give the rules for preparing
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+input; then some examples are shown.
+The description of rules is precise but technical, and
+the beginning user may prefer to read the examples first,
+as they show some common table arrangements.
+A section explaining how to invoke
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+precedes the examples.
+To avoid repetition, henceforth read
+.I
+troff
+.R
+as
+.I
+``troff
+.R
+or
+.I
+nroff.''
+.R
+.ds . \^\s14.\s0
+.PP
+The input to
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+is text for a document, with tables preceded by a ``\*.TS''
+(table start)
+command and followed by a ``\*.TE''
+(table end) command.
+.I
+Tbl
+.R
+processes the tables, generating
+.I
+troff
+.R
+formatting commands,
+and leaves the remainder of the text unchanged.
+The ``\*.TS'' and ``\*.TE''
+lines are copied, too, so that
+.I
+troff
+.R
+page layout macros
+(such as the memo formatting macros [4]\|) can use these lines
+to delimit and place tables as they see fit.
+In particular, any arguments on the ``\*.TS'' or ``\*.TE''
+lines
+are copied but otherwise ignored, and may be used by document layout
+macro commands.
+.PP
+The format of the input is as follows:
+.DS
+\&text
+\&\*.TS
+\&\fItable\fR
+\&\*.TE
+\&text
+\&\*.TS
+\&\fItable\fR
+\&\*.TE
+\&text
+\&\&\*. \*. \*.
+.DE
+where the format of each table is as follows:
+.DS
+\&\*.TS
+\fIoptions \fB;\fR
+\fIformat \*.
+data
+\&\fR\*.TE
+.DE
+Each table is independent, and must contain formatting
+information
+followed by the data to be entered in the table.
+The formatting information, which describes the
+individual columns and rows of the table, may be preceded
+by a few options that affect the entire table.
+A detailed description of tables is given in the next section.
+.sp .5
+.SH
+Input commands.
+.PP
+As indicated above, a table contains, first, global options,
+then a format section describing the layout of the table
+entries, and then the data to be printed.  The format and data
+are always required, but not the options.
+The various parts of the table are entered as follows:
+.sp .5v
+.IP 1)
+O\s-2PTIONS.\s0
+There may be a single line of options
+affecting the whole table.
+If present, this line must follow the \*.TS line immediately
+and must contain a list of option names
+separated by spaces, tabs, or commas, and must be terminated by a semicolon.
+The allowable options are:
+.RS
+.IP \fB##center\fR 13
+\(em center the table (default is left-adjust);
+.IP \fB##expand\fR
+\(em make the table as wide as the current line length;
+.IP \fB##box\fR
+\(em enclose the table in a box;
+.IP \fB##allbox\fR
+\(em enclose each item in the table in a box;
+.IP \fB##doublebox\fR
+\(em enclose the table in two boxes;
+.IP \fB##tab#\fR(\fIx\fR\^)
+\(em use \fIx\fR instead of tab to separate data items.
+.IP \fB##linesize#(\fIn\fR\^)
+\(em set lines or rules (e.g. from \fBbox\fR\^) in \fIn\fR point type;
+.IP \fB##delim#(\fIxy\fR\^)
+\(em recognize \fIx\fR and \fIy\fR as the \fIeqn\fR delimiters.
+.RE
+.LP
+.ns
+.IP
+The
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+program
+tries to keep boxed tables on one page by issuing
+appropriate ``need'' (\fI\*.ne\fR\|) commands.
+These requests are calculated from the number of lines in the tables,
+and if there are spacing commands embedded in the input, these requests may be inaccurate;
+use normal
+.I
+troff
+.R
+procedures, such as keep-release macros, in that case.
+The user who must have a multi-page boxed table
+should use macros designed for this purpose,
+as explained below under `Usage.'
+.sp .5v
+.IP 2) 5
+F\s-2ORMAT\s0.
+The format section of the table specifies the layout
+of the columns.
+Each line in this section corresponds to one line
+of the table (except that the last line corresponds to all following
+lines up to the next \*.T&, if any \(em see below),
+and each line contains a key-letter for each column
+of the table.
+It is good practice to separate the key letters for each
+column by spaces or tabs.
+Each key-letter is one of the following:
+.RS
+.cs B 25
+.IP "##\fBL\fR#or#\fBl\fR" 10
+to indicate a left-adjusted column entry;
+.IP "##\fBR\fR#or#\fBr\fR
+to indicate a right-adjusted column entry;
+.IP "##\fBC\fR#or#\fBc\fR
+to indicate a centered column entry;
+.IP "##\fBN\fR#or#\fBn\fR
+to indicate a numerical column entry, to be aligned with other
+numerical entries so that the units digits of numbers line up;
+.IP "##\fBA\fR#or#\fBa\fR
+to indicate an alphabetic subcolumn;
+all corresponding entries are aligned on the left, and positioned
+so that the widest is centered within the column (see
+example on page 12);
+.IP "##\fBS\fR#or#\fBs\fR
+to indicate a spanned heading, i.e. to indicate that the
+entry from the previous column continues across this
+column
+(not allowed for the first column, obviously); or
+.IP ##\fB\s+4\v'6p'^\v'-6p'\s0\fR
+to indicate a vertically spanned heading, i.e. to indicate that
+the entry from the previous row continues down through this row.
+(Not allowed for the first row of the table, obviously).
+.cs B
+.RE
+.LP
+.ns
+.IP
+When numerical alignment is specified, a location for the decimal
+point is sought.  The rightmost dot (\*.)
+adjacent to a digit is used as a decimal point; if there is no
+dot adjoining a digit, the rightmost digit is used as a units digit;
+if no alignment is indicated, the item is centered in the column.
+However, the special non-printing character string \e& may be used
+to override unconditionally dots
+and digits, or to align alphabetic data;
+this string lines up where a dot normally would,
+and then disappears from the final output.
+In the example below, the items shown at the left will be
+aligned (in a numerical column) as shown on the right:
+.KS
+.TS
+center;
+l6 n.
+13	13
+4\*.2	4\&\*.2
+26\*.4\*.12	26\*.4\&\*.12
+abc	abc
+abc\e&	abc\&
+43\e&3\*.22	43\&3\*.22
+749\*.12	749\&\*.12
+.TE
+.KE
+.IP
+\fBNote:\fR
+If numerical data are used in the same column with wider
+.B L
+or
+.B r
+type table entries, the widest \fInumber\fR is centered relative
+to the wider
+.B L
+or
+.B r
+items (\fBL\fR is used instead of \fBl\fR for readability;
+they have the same meaning as key-letters).
+Alignment within the numerical items is preserved.
+This is similar to the behavior of
+.B a
+type data, as explained above.
+However,
+alphabetic subcolumns (requested by the
+.B
+a
+.R
+key-letter)
+are always slightly indented relative to
+.B
+L
+.R
+items;
+if necessary, the column width is increased to force this.
+This is not true for \fBn\fR type entries.
+.IP
+.bd I 3
+.ft I
+Warning:
+.ft 1
+.bd I
+the \fBn\fR and \fBa\fR items should not be used in
+the same column.
+.IP
+For readability, the key-letters describing each column should
+be separated by spaces.
+The end of the format section is indicated by a period.
+The layout of the key-letters in the format section resembles
+the layout of the actual data in the table.
+Thus a simple format might appear as:
+.br
+.ne 3
+.in +2
+.nf
+c  s  s
+l  n  n \*.
+.fi
+.in -2
+which specifies a table of three columns. The first line
+of the table contains a heading centered across all three
+columns; each remaining line contains a left-adjusted item
+in the first column followed by two columns of numerical
+data.
+A sample table in this format might be:
+.br
+.ne 6v
+.br
+.in +4
+.TS
+c s s
+l n n.
+Overall title
+Item-a	34.22	9.1
+Item-b	12.65	.02
+Items: c,d,e	23	5.8
+Total	69.87	14.92
+.TE
+.in -4
+There are some additional features of the key-letter system:
+.RS
+.IP "\fI##Horizontal lines#\fR"
+\(em A key-letter may be replaced by `\(ul'
+(underscore) to indicate
+a horizontal line in place of the corresponding column entry,
+or by `=' to indicate a double horizontal line.
+If an adjacent column contains a horizontal line, or if
+there are vertical lines adjoining this column,
+this horizontal line is extended to meet the nearby lines.
+If any data entry is provided for this column, it is ignored and
+a warning message is printed.
+.QQ do the D(x) and M(x) to draw a line of 'x' characters.
+.QQ D will draw divided lines, M merged lines. thus - is simplh M(\(ru)
+.IP "\fI##Vertical lines#\fR"
+\(em A vertical bar may be placed between column key-letters.  This will
+cause a vertical line between the corresponding columns of the table.
+A vertical bar to the left of the first key-letter
+or to the right of the last one produces a line at the
+edge of the table.
+If two vertical bars appear between key-letters, a double vertical
+line is drawn.
+.IP "\fI##Space between columns#\fR"
+\(em A number may follow the key-letter.  This indicates the amount of separation
+between this column and the next column.
+The number normally specifies the separation in
+.I
+ens
+.R
+(one
+en
+.ne 3
+is about the width of the letter `n').* 
+.FS
+* More precisely, an en is a number of points (1 point = 1/72 inch)
+equal to half the current type size.
+.FE
+If the ``expand'' option is used, then these numbers are multiplied
+by a constant such that the table is as wide as the current line length.
+The default column separation number is 3.
+If the separation is changed the worst case (largest space requested) governs.
+.IP "\fI##Vertical spanning#\fR"
+\(em Normally, vertically spanned items extending over several
+rows of the table are centered in their vertical range.
+If a key-letter is followed by
+.B
+t
+.R
+or
+.B T ,
+any corresponding vertically spanned item
+will begin at the top line of its range.
+.IP "\fI##Font changes#\fR"
+\(em A key-letter may be followed by a string containing a font
+name or number
+preceded by the letter
+.B f
+or
+.B F .
+This indicates that the corresponding column should be in a different
+font from the default font (usually Roman).
+All font names are one or two letters; a one-letter font
+name should be separated from whatever follows by a space or tab.
+The single letters
+\f3B\f1, \f3b\f1, \f3I\f1,
+and
+\f3i\f1
+are shorter synonyms for
+.B f\^B
+and
+.B f\^I .
+Font change commands given with the table entries
+override these specifications.
+.IP "\fI##Point size changes#\fR"
+\(em A key-letter may be followed by the letter
+.B p
+or
+.B P
+and a number to indicate the point size of the corresponding table entries.
+The number may be a signed digit, in which case it is taken as
+an increment or decrement
+from the current point size.
+If both a point size and a column separation value are given,
+one or more blanks must separate them.
+.IP "\fI##Vertical spacing changes#\fR"
+\(em A key-letter may be followed by the letter
+.B v
+or
+.B V
+and a number to indicate the vertical line spacing to be used
+within a multi-line corresponding table entry.
+The number may be a signed digit, in which case it is taken as an increment
+or decrement from the current vertical spacing.
+A column separation value must be separated by blanks or some other
+specification from a vertical spacing request.
+This request has no effect unless the corresponding table entry
+is a text block (see below).
+.IP "\fI##Column width indication#\fR"
+\(em A key-letter may be followed by the letter
+.B w
+or
+.B W
+and a width value in parentheses.
+This width is used as a minimum column width.
+If the largest element in the column is not as wide as the width value
+given after the \fBw\fR, the largest element is assumed to be that wide.
+If the largest element in the column is wider than the specified value,
+its width is used.
+The width is also used as a default line
+length for included text blocks.
+Normal
+.I
+troff
+.R
+units can be used to scale the width value; if none are used,
+the default is
+ens.
+If the width specification is a unitless integer
+the parentheses may be omitted.
+If the width value is changed in a column, the \fIlast\fR one given controls.
+.IP "\fI##Equal width columns#\fR"
+\(em A key-letter may be followed by the letter
+.B e
+or
+.B E
+to indicate equal width columns.
+All columns whose
+key-letters are followed by \fBe\fR or \fBE\fR are made the same width.
+This permits the user to get a group of regularly spaced
+columns.
+.IP "##\fBNote:\fR#"
+The order of the above features is immaterial; they need not be separated
+by spaces, except as indicated above to avoid ambiguities involving
+point size and font changes.  Thus
+a numerical column entry in italic font and 12 point type with a minimum
+width of 2.5 inches and separated by 6 ens from the next column could
+be specified as
+.in +5
+np12w(2\*.5i)f\|I  6
+.in -5
+.IP "\fI##Alternative notation#\fR"
+\(em Instead of listing the format of successive lines of a table
+on consecutive lines of the format section,
+successive line formats may be given on the same line, separated
+by commas, so that the format for the example
+above might have been written:
+.in +5
+c s s, l n n \*.
+.in -5
+.IP "\fI##Default#\fR"
+\(em Column descriptors missing from the end
+of a format line are assumed to be \fBL\fR.
+The longest line in the format section, however,
+defines the number of columns
+in the table;
+extra columns in the data are ignored silently.
+.QQ put in the diagnostics.
+.RE
+.sp .5v
+.IP 3)
+D\s-2ATA\s0.
+The data for the table are typed after the format.
+Normally, each table line is typed as one line of data.
+Very long input lines can be broken: any line whose last character is
+\e is combined with the following line (and the \e vanishes).
+The data for different columns (the table entries) are separated by tabs,
+or by whatever character has been specified in the option
+.I tabs
+option.
+There are a few special cases:
+.RS
+.IP "\fI##Troff commands within tables\fR#"
+\(em An input line
+beginning with a `\*.' followed by anything
+but a number is assumed to be a command to
+.I
+troff
+.R
+and is passed through unchanged, retaining its position in the table.
+So, for example, space within a table may be produced by ``\*.sp''
+commands
+in the data.
+.IP "\fI##Full width horizontal lines\fR#"
+\(em An input
+.I line
+containing only the character $fat "\(ul" $ (underscore)
+or \fB=\fR (equal sign) is taken to be a single or double
+line, respectively, extending the
+full width
+of the
+.I table.
+.IP "\fI##Single column horizontal lines\fR#"
+\(em An input table
+.I entry
+containing only the character $fat "\(ul" $ or \fB=\fR
+is taken to be a single or double line extending
+the full width of the
+.I column.
+Such lines are extended to meet horizontal or vertical
+lines adjoining this column.
+To obtain these characters explicitly in a column, either
+precede them by \e& or
+follow them by a space before the usual tab or newline.
+.IP "\fI##Short horizontal lines\fR#"
+\(em An input table
+.I entry
+containing only the string $fat "\e\(ul"$
+is taken to be a single line as wide as the contents of
+the column.  It is not extended to meet
+adjoining lines.
+.IP "\fI##Vertically spanned items\fR#"
+\(em An input table entry containing only the
+character string
+.ft B
+\e\s+2\v'2p'^\v'-2p'\s0
+.ft R
+indicates that the table entry immediately
+above spans downward over this row.  It is equivalent
+to a table format key-letter of `^'.
+.IP "\fI##Text blocks\fR#"
+\(em In order to include a block of text as a table entry,
+precede it by $fat roman "T{" $ and follow
+it by $fat roman "T}" $.
+Thus the sequence
+.in +2
+.nf
+  \*. \*. \*. $fat roman "T{"$
+.I
+  block of
+  text
+.R
+  $fat roman "T}"$ \*. \*. \*.
+.in -2
+.fi
+is the way to enter, as a single entry in the table, something
+that cannot conveniently be typed as a simple string between
+tabs.
+Note that the $fat roman "T}" $ end delimiter must begin a line;
+additional columns of data may follow after a tab on the same line.
+See the example on page 10 for an illustration of included text blocks
+.e1 aa 10
+in a table.
+If more than twenty or thirty text blocks are used in a table,
+various limits in the
+.I
+troff
+.R
+program are likely to be exceeded,
+producing diagnostics such as `too many string/macro names' or `too many
+number registers.'
+.IP
+Text blocks are pulled out from the table, processed separately by
+.I
+troff,
+.R
+and replaced in the table as a solid block.  If no line length
+is specified in the
+.I
+block of text
+.R
+itself, or in the table format,
+the default is to use
+$ L times C / (N+1) $
+where
+.I
+L
+.R
+is the current line length,
+.I
+C
+.R
+is the number of table columns spanned by the text,
+and
+.I
+N
+.R
+is the total number of columns in the table.
+The other parameters (point size, font, etc.) used in setting the
+.I
+block of text
+.R
+are those in effect at the beginning of the table (including
+the effect of the ``\*.TS'' macro)
+and any table format specifications of size, spacing and font,
+using the \fBp\fR, \fBv\fR and \fBf\fR modifiers to the column key-letters.
+Commands within the text block itself are also recognized, of course.
+However,
+.I troff
+commands within the table data but not within the text block
+do not affect that block.
+.br
+.di RR
+.     this is going down a rathole
+.EQ
+delim off
+.EN
+.di
+.rm RR
+.IP "##\fBWarnings:\fR#"
+\(em Although any number of lines may be present in a table,
+only the first 200 lines are used in calculating
+the widths of the various columns.  A multi-page table,
+of course, may be arranged as several single-page tables
+if this proves to be a problem.
+Other difficulties with formatting may arise because,
+in the calculation of column widths all table entries
+are assumed to be in the font and size being used when
+the ``\*.TS'' command was encountered, except for font and size changes
+indicated (a) in the table format section and (b)
+within the table data (as in the entry
+\es+3\efIdata\efP\es0\|).
+Therefore, although arbitrary
+.I
+troff
+.R
+requests may be sprinkled in a table, care must be taken
+to avoid confusing the width calculations;
+use requests such as `\*.ps' with care.
+.tr ##
+.sp .5v
+.RE
+.IP 4)
+A\s-2DDITIONAL COMMAND LINES\s0.
+If the format of a table must be changed after
+many similar lines, as with sub-headings or summarizations, the ``\*.T&''
+(table continue)
+command can be used
+to change column parameters.
+The outline of such a table input is:
+.DS
+.ft R
+\&\*.TS
+.ft I
+\&options \fB;\fP
+\&format \*.
+\&data
+\&\*. \*. \*.
+.ft R
+\&\*.T&
+.ft I
+\&format \*.
+\&data
+.ft R
+\&\*.T&
+.ft I
+\&format \*.
+\&data
+.ft R
+\&\*.TE
+.DE
+as in the examples on pages 10 and 12.
+.e1 ab 10
+.e1 ac 12
+Using this procedure, each table line can be close to its corresponding format line.
+.bd I 3
+.br
+.sp 3p
+.ft I
+Warning:
+.ft R
+.bd I
+it is not possible to change the number of columns, the space
+between columns, the global options such as \fIbox,\fR
+or the selection of columns to be made equal width.
+.SH
+Usage.
+.PP
+On
+\s-2UNIX\s0,
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+can be run on a simple table with the command
+.DS
+tbl input-file | troff
+.DE
+but
+for more complicated use, where there are several input files,
+and they contain equations and \fIms\fR memorandum layout commands as well
+as tables, the normal command would be
+.DS
+tbl file-1 file-2 \*. \*. \*. | eqn | troff \-ms
+.DE
+and, of course, the usual options may be used on the
+.I
+troff
+.R
+and
+.I
+eqn
+.R
+commands.  The usage for
+.I
+nroff
+.R
+is similar
+to that for
+.I
+troff,
+.R
+but only
+\s-2TELETYPE\s+2\(rg Model 37 and
+Diablo-mechanism (\s-2DASI\s0 or \s-2GSI\s0)
+terminals can print boxed tables directly.
+.PP
+For the convenience of users employing line printers without
+adequate driving tables or post-filters, there is a special
+.I \-TX
+command line option to
+.I tbl
+which produces output that does not have fractional line
+motions in it.
+The only other command line options recognized by
+.I tbl
+are
+.I \-ms
+and
+.I \-mm
+which are turned into
+commands to fetch the corresponding macro files;
+usually it is more convenient to place these arguments
+on the
+.I troff
+part of the command line,
+but they are accepted by
+.I tbl
+as well.
+.PP
+Note that when
+.I
+eqn
+.R
+and
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+are used together on the same file
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+should be used first.
+If there are no equations within tables,
+either order works, but it is usually faster
+to run
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+first, since
+.I
+eqn
+.R
+normally produces a larger expansion of the input
+than
+.I
+tbl.
+.R
+However, if there are equations within tables
+(using the
+.I
+delim
+.R
+mechanism in
+.I
+eqn\fR),
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+must be first or the output will be scrambled.
+Users must also beware of using equations in
+\fBn\fR-style columns; this is nearly always wrong,
+since
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+attempts to split numerical format items into two parts and this
+is not possible with equations.
+The user can defend against this by giving the
+.I delim(xx)
+table option;
+this prevents splitting of numerical columns within the delimiters.
+For example, if the
+.I eqn
+delimiters
+are
+.I $$ ,
+giving
+.I delim($$)
+a numerical column such as
+``1245 $+- 16$''
+will be divided after 1245, not after 16.
+.PP
+.I
+Tbl
+.R
+limits tables to twenty columns; however,
+use of more than 16 numerical columns may fail because of
+limits in
+.I
+troff,
+.R
+producing the `too many number registers' message.
+\fITroff\fR number registers used by
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+must be avoided by the user within tables;
+these include two-digit names from 31 to 99,
+and names of the forms
+#\fIx\fR, \fIx\fR+, \fIx\fR\ |, \v'3p'^\v'-3p'\fIx\fR, and \fIx\fR\(mi,
+where
+\fIx\fR is any lower case letter.
+The names
+##, #\(mi, and #^ are also used in certain circumstances.
+To conserve number register names, the
+\fBn\fR
+and
+\fBa\fR
+formats share a register;
+hence the restriction above that they may not be used in the same column.
+.PP
+For aid in writing layout macros,
+.I
+tbl
+.R
+defines a number register TW which is
+the table width; it is defined by the time that the ``\*.TE'' macro
+is invoked and may be used in the expansion of that macro.
+More importantly, to assist in laying out multi-page boxed tables
+the macro T# is defined to produce the bottom lines and side lines of a boxed
+table, and then invoked at its end.  By use of this macro
+in the page footer a multi-page table can be boxed.
+In particular, the
+.I
+ms
+.R
+macros can be used to print a multi-page boxed table with a repeated heading
+by giving the
+argument H to the ``\*.TS'' macro.
+If the table start macro is written
+.br
+	\&\*.TS H
+.br
+a line of the form
+.br
+	\&\*.TH
+.br
+must be given in the table after any table heading (or at the start if none).
+Material up to the ``\*.TH'' is placed at the top of each page of table;
+the remaining lines in the table are placed on several pages as required.
+Note that this is
+.I
+not
+.R
+a feature of
+.I
+tbl,
+.R
+but of the \fIms\fR layout macros.
+.SH
+Examples.
+.PP
+Here are some examples illustrating features of
+.I
+tbl.
+.R
+.ds T \|\h'.4n'\v'-.2n'\s6\zT\s0\s10\v'.2n'\h'-.4n'\(ci\|\s0
+The symbol \*T in the input represents a tab character.
+.de IN
+.po \\n(POu
+.sp |\\n(.hu
+.sp
+.ne \\$1
+.mk
+.B
+Input:
+.R
+.sp .5
+.nf
+.in +3n
+..
+.de OU
+.br
+.in -3n
+.rt
+.po +3i
+.B
+Output:
+.R
+.sp .5
+..
+.rm TS
+.rm TE
+.nf
+.IN 2.5i
+\&\*.TS
+\&box;
+\&c c c
+\&l l l\*.
+\&Language\*TAuthors\*TRuns on
+\&
+\&Fortran\*TMany\*TAlmost anything
+\&PL/1\*TIBM\*T360/370
+\&C\*TBTL\*T11/45,H6000,370
+\&BLISS\*TCarnegie-Mellon\*TPDP-10,11
+\&IDS\*THoneywell\*TH6000
+\&Pascal\*TStanford\*T370
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.TS
+box;
+c c c
+l l l.
+Language	Authors	Runs on
+
+Fortran	Many	Almost anything
+PL/1	IBM	360/370
+C	BTL	11/45,H6000,370
+BLISS	Carnegie-Mellon	PDP-10,11
+IDS	Honeywell	H6000
+Pascal	Stanford	370
+.TE
+.IN 2.8i
+\&\*.TS
+\&allbox;
+\&c s s
+\&c c c
+\&n n n\*.
+\&AT&T Common Stock
+\&Year\*TPrice\*TDividend
+\&1971\*T41-54\*T$2\*.60
+\&2\*T41-54\*T2\*.70
+\&3\*T46-55\*T2\*.87
+\&4\*T40-53\*T3\*.24
+\&5\*T45-52\*T3\*.40
+\&6\*T51-59\*T\*.95*
+\&\*.TE
+\&* (first quarter only)
+.OU
+.TS
+allbox;
+c s s
+c c c
+n n n.
+AT&T Common Stock
+Year	Price	Dividend
+1971	41-54	$2.60
+2	41-54	2.70
+3	46-55	2.87
+4	40-53	3.24
+5	45-52	3.40
+6	51-59	.95*
+.TE
+* (first quarter only)
+.IN 4i
+\&\*.TS
+\&box;
+\&c s s
+\&c | c | c
+\&l | l | n\*.
+\&Major New York Bridges
+\&=
+\&Bridge\*TDesigner\*TLength
+\&\(ul
+\&Brooklyn\*TJ\*. A\*. Roebling\*T1595
+\&Manhattan\*TG\*. Lindenthal\*T1470
+\&Williamsburg\*TL\*. L\*. Buck\*T1600
+\&\(ul
+\&Queensborough\*TPalmer &\*T1182
+\&\*T  Hornbostel
+\&\(ul
+\&\*T\*T1380
+\&Triborough\*TO\*. H\*. Ammann\*T\(ul
+\&\*T\*T383
+\&\(ul
+\&Bronx Whitestone\*TO\*. H\*. Ammann\*T2300
+\&Throgs Neck\*TO\*. H\*. Ammann\*T1800
+\&\(ul
+\&George Washington\*TO\*. H\*. Ammann\*T3500
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.TS
+box;
+c s s
+c | c | c
+l | l | n.
+Major New York Bridges
+=
+Bridge	Designer	Length
+_
+Brooklyn	J. A. Roebling	1595
+Manhattan	G. Lindenthal	1470
+Williamsburg	L. L. Buck	1600
+_
+Queensborough	Palmer &	1182
+	  Hornbostel
+_
+		1380
+Triborough	O. H. Ammann	_
+		383
+_
+Bronx Whitestone	O. H. Ammann	2300
+Throgs Neck	O. H. Ammann	1800
+_
+George Washington	O. H. Ammann	3500
+.TE
+.IN 3.0i
+\&\*.TS
+\&c c
+\&np-2 | n | \*.
+\&\*TStack
+\&\*T\(ul
+\&1\*T46
+\&\*T\(ul
+\&2\*T23
+\&\*T\(ul
+\&3\*T15
+\&\*T\(ul
+\&4\*T6\*.5
+\&\*T\(ul
+\&5\*T2\*.1
+\&\*T\(ul
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.TS
+c c
+np-2 | n |.
+	Stack
+	_
+1	46
+	_
+2	23
+	_
+3	15
+	_
+4	6.5
+	_
+5	2.1
+	_
+.TE
+.IN 2.5i
+\&\*.TS
+\&box;
+\&L L L
+\&L L \(ul
+\&L L | LB
+\&L L \(ul
+\&L L L\*.
+\&january\*Tfebruary\*Tmarch
+\&april\*Tmay
+\&june\*Tjuly\*TMonths
+\&august\*Tseptember
+\&october\*Tnovember\*Tdecember
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.TS
+box;
+L L L
+L L _
+L L | LB
+L L _
+L L L.
+january	february	march
+april	may
+june	july	Months
+august	september
+october	november	december
+.TE
+.IN 5.0i
+.e2 ab
+\&\*.TS
+\&box;
+\&cfB s s s\*.
+\&Composition of Foods
+\&\(ul
+\&\*.T&
+\&c  | c s s
+\&c  | c s s
+\&c   | c  | c  | c\*.
+\&Food\*TPercent by Weight
+\&\e^\*T\(ul
+\&\e^\*TProtein\*TFat\*TCarbo-
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*T\e^\*Thydrate
+\&\(ul
+\&\*.T&
+\&l  | n  | n  | n\*.
+\&Apples\*T\*.4\*T\*.5\*T13\*.0
+\&Halibut\*T18\*.4\*T5\*.2\*T\*. \*. \*.
+\&Lima beans\*T7\*.5\*T\*.8\*T22\*.0
+\&Milk\*T3\*.3\*T4\*.0\*T5\*.0
+\&Mushrooms\*T3\*.5\*T\*.4\*T6\*.0
+\&Rye bread\*T9\*.0\*T\*.6\*T52\*.7
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.TS
+box;
+cfB s s s.
+Composition of Foods
+_
+.T&
+c  |c s s
+c  |c s s
+c   |c  |c  |c.
+Food	Percent by Weight
+\^	_
+\^	Protein	Fat	Carbo-
+\^	\^	\^	hydrate
+_
+.T&
+l  |n  |n  |n.
+Apples	.4	.5	13.0
+Halibut	18.4	5.2	...
+Lima beans	7.5	.8	22.0
+Milk	3.3	4.0	5.0
+Mushrooms	3.5	.4	6.0
+Rye bread	9.0	.6	52.7
+.TE
+.IN 3.7i
+.e2 aa
+\&\*.TS
+\&allbox;
+\&cfI  s   s
+\&c    cw(1i)   cw(1i)
+\&lp9 lp9 lp9\*.
+\&New York Area Rocks
+\&Era\*TFormation\*TAge (years)
+\&Precambrian\*TReading Prong\*T>1 billion
+\&Paleozoic\*TManhattan Prong\*T400 million
+\&Mesozoic\*TT{
+\&\*.na
+\&Newark Basin, incl\*.
+\&Stockton, Lockatong, and Brunswick
+\&formations; also Watchungs
+\&and Palisades\*.
+\&T}\*T200 million
+\&Cenozoic\*TCoastal Plain\*TT{
+\&On Long Island 30,000 years;
+\&Cretaceous sediments redeposited
+\&by recent glaciation\*.
+\&\*.ad
+\&T}
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.fi
+.TS
+allbox;
+cfI s   s
+c   cw(1i)   cw(1i)
+lp9 lp9 lp9.
+New York Area Rocks
+Era	Formation	Age (years)
+Precambrian	Reading Prong	>1 billion
+Paleozoic	Manhattan Prong	400 million
+Mesozoic	T{
+.na
+Newark Basin, incl.
+Stockton, Lockatong, and Brunswick
+formations; also Watchungs
+and Palisades.
+T}	200 million
+Cenozoic	Coastal Plain	T{
+On Long Island 30,000 years;
+Cretaceous sediments redeposited
+by recent glaciation.
+.ad
+T}
+.TE
+.IN 2i
+\&\*.EQ
+\&delim $$
+\&\*.EN
+.sp
+\&\*. \*. \*.
+.sp
+\&\*.TS
+\&doublebox;
+\&c c
+\&l l\*.
+\&Name\*TDefinition
+\&\*.sp
+\&\*.vs +2p
+\&Gamma\*T$GAMMA (z) = int sub 0 sup inf  t sup {z-1} e sup -t dt$
+\&Sine\*T$sin (x) = 1 over 2i ( e sup ix - e sup -ix )$
+\&Error\*T$ roman erf (z) = 2 over sqrt pi int sub 0 sup z e sup {-t sup 2} dt$
+\&Bessel\*T$ J sub 0 (z) = 1 over pi int sub 0 sup pi cos ( z sin theta ) d theta $
+\&Zeta\*T$ zeta (s) = sum from k=1 to inf k sup -s ~~( Re~s > 1)$
+\&\*.vs -2p
+\&\*.TE
+.di qq
+.EQ
+delim $$
+.EN
+.di
+.rm qq
+.rs
+.OU
+.TS
+doublebox;
+c c
+l l.
+Name	Definition
+.sp
+.vs +2p
+Gamma	$GAMMA (z) = int sub 0 sup inf  t sup {z-1} e sup -t dt$
+Sine	$sin (x) = 1 over 2i ( e sup ix - e sup -ix )$
+Error	$ roman erf (z) = 2 over sqrt pi int sub 0 sup z e sup {-t sup 2} dt$
+Bessel	$ J sub 0 (z) = 1 over pi int sub 0 sup pi cos ( z sin theta ) d theta $
+Zeta	$ zeta (s) = sum from k=1 to inf k sup -s ~~( Re~s > 1)$
+.vs -2p
+.TE
+.ds : \|:\|
+.IN 2i
+\&\*.TS
+\&box, tab(\*:);
+\&cb s s s s
+\&cp-2 s s s s
+\&c |\|| c | c | c | c
+\&c |\|| c | c | c | c
+\&r2 |\|| n2 | n2 | n2 | n\*.
+\&Readability of Text
+\&Line Width and Leading for 10-Point Type
+\&=
+\&Line\*:Set\*:1-Point\*:2-Point\*:4-Point
+\&Width\*:Solid\*:Leading\*:Leading\*:Leading
+\&_
+\&9 Pica\*:\e-9\*.3\*:\e-6\*.0\*:\e-5\*.3\*:\e-7\*.1
+\&14 Pica\*:\e-4\*.5\*:\e-0\*.6\*:\e-0\*.3\*:\e-1\*.7
+\&19 Pica\*:\e-5\*.0\*:\e-5\*.1\*: 0\*.0\*:\e-2\*.0
+\&31 Pica\*:\e-3\*.7\*:\e-3\*.8\*:\e-2\*.4\*:\e-3\*.6
+\&43 Pica\*:\e-9\*.1\*:\e-9\*.0\*:\e-5\*.9\*:\e-8\*.8
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.TS
+box, tab(:);
+cb s s s s
+cp-2 s s s s
+c ||c |c |c |c
+c ||c |c |c |c
+r2 ||n2 |n2 |n2 |n.
+Readability of Text
+Line Width and Leading for 10-Point Type
+=
+Line:Set:1-Point:2-Point:4-Point
+Width:Solid:Leading:Leading:Leading
+_
+9 Pica:\-9.3:\-6.0:\-5.3:\-7.1
+14 Pica:\-4.5:\-0.6:\-0.3:\-1.7
+19 Pica:\-5.0:\-5.1: 0.0:\-2.0
+31 Pica:\-3.7:\-3.8:\-2.4:\-3.6
+43 Pica:\-9.1:\-9.0:\-5.9:\-8.8
+.TE
+.IN 7i
+.e2 ac
+\&\*.TS
+\&c s
+\&cip-2 s
+\&l n
+\&a n\*.
+\&Some London Transport Statistics
+\&(Year 1964)
+\&Railway route miles\*T244
+\&Tube\*T66
+\&Sub-surface\*T22
+\&Surface\*T156
+\&\*.sp \*.5
+\&\*.T&
+\&l r
+\&a r\*.
+\&Passenger traffic \e- railway
+\&Journeys\*T674 million
+\&Average length\*T4\*.55 miles
+\&Passenger miles\*T3,066 million
+\&\*.T&
+\&l r
+\&a r\*.
+\&Passenger traffic \e- road
+\&Journeys\*T2,252 million
+\&Average length\*T2\*.26 miles
+\&Passenger miles\*T5,094 million
+\&\*.T&
+\&l n
+\&a n\*.
+\&\*.sp \*.5
+\&Vehicles\*T12,521
+\&Railway motor cars\*T2,905
+\&Railway trailer cars\*T1,269
+\&Total railway\*T4,174
+\&Omnibuses\*T8,347
+\&\*.T&
+\&l n
+\&a n\*.
+\&\*.sp \*.5
+\&Staff\*T73,739
+\&Administrative, etc\*.\*T5,582
+\&Civil engineering\*T5,134
+\&Electrical eng\*.\*T1,714
+\&Mech\*. eng\*. \e- railway\*T4,310
+\&Mech\*. eng\*. \e- road\*T9,152
+\&Railway operations\*T8,930
+\&Road operations\*T35,946
+\&Other\*T2,971
+\&\*.TE
+.OU
+.TS
+c s
+cip-2 s
+l n
+a n.
+Some London Transport Statistics
+(Year 1964)
+Railway route miles	244
+Tube	66
+Sub-surface	22
+Surface	156
+.sp .5
+.T&
+l r
+a r.
+Passenger traffic \(mi railway
+Journeys	674 million
+Average length	4.55 miles
+Passenger miles	3,066 million
+.T&
+l r
+a r.
+Passenger traffic \(mi road
+Journeys	2,252 million
+Average length	2.26 miles
+Passenger miles	5,094 million
+.T&
+l n
+a n.
+.sp .5
+Vehicles	12,521
+Railway motor cars	2,905
+Railway trailer cars	1,269
+Total railway	4,174
+Omnibuses	8,347
+.T&
+l n
+a n.
+.sp .5
+Staff	73,739
+Administrative, etc.	5,582
+Civil engineering	5,134
+Electrical eng.	1,714
+Mech. eng. \(mi railway	4,310
+Mech. eng. \(mi road	9,152
+Railway operations	8,930
+Road operations	35,946
+Other	2,971
+.TE
+.po \n(POu
+.sp |\n(.hu
+.de IN
+.sp
+.ne 1i
+.B
+Input:
+.R
+.sp .5
+.in +3n
+.nf
+..
+.de OU
+.sp
+.in -3n
+.ne 1i
+.B
+Output:
+.R
+.sp .5
+..
+.ns
+.EQ
+delim off
+.EN
+.IN
+\&\*.ps 8
+\&\*.vs 10p
+\&\*.TS
+center box;
+\&c s s
+\&ci s s
+\&c c c
+\&lB l n\*.
+\&New Jersey Representatives
+\&(Democrats)
+\&\*.sp \*.5
+\&Name\*TOffice address\*TPhone
+\&\*.sp \*.5
+\&James J\*. Florio\*T23 S\*. White Horse Pike, Somerdale 08083\*T609-627-8222
+\&William J\*. Hughes\*T2920 Atlantic Ave\*., Atlantic City 08401\*T609-345-4844
+\&James J\*. Howard\*T801 Bangs Ave\*., Asbury Park 07712\*T201-774-1600
+\&Frank Thompson, Jr\*.\*T10 Rutgers Pl\*., Trenton 08618\*T609-599-1619
+\&Andrew Maguire\*T115 W\*. Passaic St\*., Rochelle Park 07662\*T201-843-0240
+\&Robert A\*. Roe\*TU\*.S\*.P\*.O\*., 194 Ward St\*., Paterson 07510\*T201-523-5152
+\&Henry Helstoski\*T666 Paterson Ave\*., East Rutherford 07073\*T201-939-9090
+\&Peter W\*. Rodino, Jr\*.\*TSuite 1435A, 970 Broad St\*., Newark 07102\*T201-645-3213
+\&Joseph G\*. Minish\*T308 Main St\*., Orange 07050\*T201-645-6363
+\&Helen S\*. Meyner\*T32 Bridge St\*., Lambertville 08530\*T609-397-1830
+\&Dominick V\*. Daniels\*T895 Bergen Ave\*., Jersey City 07306\*T201-659-7700
+\&Edward J\*. Patten\*TNatl\*. Bank Bldg\*., Perth Amboy 08861\*T201-826-4610
+\&\*.sp \*.5
+\&\*.T&
+\&ci s s
+\&lB l n\*.
+\&(Republicans)
+\&\*.sp \*.5v
+\&Millicent Fenwick\*T41 N\*. Bridge St\*., Somerville 08876\*T201-722-8200
+\&Edwin B\*. Forsythe\*T301 Mill St\*., Moorestown 08057\*T609-235-6622
+\&Matthew J\*. Rinaldo\*T1961 Morris Ave\*., Union 07083\*T201-687-4235
+\&\*.TE
+\&\*.ps 10
+\&\*.vs 12p
+.ne 3.2i
+.OU
+.ps 8
+.vs 10p
+.TS
+center box;
+c s s
+ci s s
+c c c
+lB l n.
+New Jersey Representatives
+(Democrats)
+.sp .5
+Name	Office address	Phone
+.sp .5
+James J. Florio	23 S. White Horse Pike, Somerdale 08083	609-627-8222
+William J. Hughes	2920 Atlantic Ave., Atlantic City 08401	609-345-4844
+James J. Howard	801 Bangs Ave., Asbury Park 07712	201-774-1600
+Frank Thompson, Jr.	10 Rutgers Pl., Trenton 08618	609-599-1619
+Andrew Maguire	115 W. Passaic St., Rochelle Park 07662	201-843-0240
+Robert A. Roe	U.S.P.O., 194 Ward St., Paterson 07510	201-523-5152
+Henry Helstoski	666 Paterson Ave., East Rutherford 07073	201-939-9090
+Peter W. Rodino, Jr.	Suite 1435A, 970 Broad St., Newark 07102	201-645-3213
+Joseph G. Minish	308 Main St., Orange 07050	201-645-6363
+Helen S. Meyner	32 Bridge St., Lambertville 08530	609-397-1830
+Dominick V. Daniels	895 Bergen Ave., Jersey City 07306	201-659-7700
+Edward J. Patten	Natl. Bank Bldg., Perth Amboy 08861	201-826-4610
+.sp .5
+.T&
+ci s s
+lB l n.
+(Republicans)
+.sp .5v
+Millicent Fenwick	41 N. Bridge St., Somerville 08876	201-722-8200
+Edwin B. Forsythe	301 Mill St., Moorestown 08057	609-235-6622
+Matthew J. Rinaldo	1961 Morris Ave., Union 07083	201-687-4235
+.TE
+.ps 10
+.vs 12p
+.sp
+.fi
+This is a paragraph of normal text placed here only to indicate where
+the left and right margins are.  In this way the reader can judge
+the appearance of centered tables or expanded tables, and observe
+how such tables are formatted.
+.IN
+\&\*.TS
+\&expand;
+\&c s s s
+\&c c c c
+\&l l n n\*.
+\&Bell Labs Locations
+\&Name\*TAddress\*TArea Code\*TPhone
+\&Holmdel\*THolmdel, N\*. J\*. 07733\*T201\*T949-3000
+\&Murray Hill\*TMurray Hill, N\*. J\*. 07974\*T201\*T582-6377
+\&Whippany\*TWhippany, N\*. J\*. 07981\*T201\*T386-3000
+\&Indian Hill\*TNaperville, Illinois 60540\*T312\*T690-2000
+\&\*.TE
+.ne 1.3i
+.OU
+.TS
+expand;
+c s s s
+c c c c
+l l n n.
+Bell Labs Locations
+Name	Address	Area Code	Phone
+Holmdel	Holmdel, N. J. 07733	201	949-3000
+Murray Hill	Murray Hill, N. J. 07974	201	582-6377
+Whippany	Whippany, N. J. 07981	201	386-3000
+Indian Hill	Naperville, Illinois 60540	312	690-2000
+.TE
+.br
+.ps 8
+.vs 9p
+.ne 5i
+.IN
+\&\*.TS
+\&box;
+\&cb   s   s   s
+\&c | c | c   s
+\&ltiw(1i) | ltw(2i) | lp8 | lw(1\*.6i)p8\*.
+\&Some Interesting Places
+\&_
+\&Name\*TDescription\*TPractical Information
+\&_
+\&T{
+\&American Museum of Natural History
+\&T}\*TT{
+\&The collections fill 11\*.5 acres (Michelin) or 25 acres (MTA)
+\&of exhibition halls on four floors\*.  There is a full-sized replica
+\&of a blue whale and the world's largest star sapphire (stolen in 1964)\*.
+\&T}\*THours\*T10-5, ex\*. Sun 11-5, Wed\*. to 9
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TLocation\*TT{
+\&Central Park West & 79th St\*.
+\&T}
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TAdmission\*TDonation: $1\*.00 asked
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TSubway\*TAA to 81st St\*.
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TTelephone\*T212-873-4225
+\&_
+\&Bronx Zoo\*TT{
+\&About a mile long and \*.6 mile wide, this is the largest zoo in America\*.
+\&A lion eats 18 pounds
+\&of meat a day while a sea lion eats 15 pounds of fish\*.
+\&T}\*THours\*TT{
+\&10-4:30 winter, to 5:00 summer
+\&T}
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TLocation\*TT{
+\&185th St\*. & Southern Blvd, the Bronx\*.
+\&T}
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TAdmission\*T$1\*.00, but Tu,We,Th free
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TSubway\*T2, 5 to East Tremont Ave\*.
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TTelephone\*T212-933-1759
+\&_
+\&Brooklyn Museum\*TT{
+\&Five floors of galleries contain American and ancient art\*.
+\&There are American period rooms and architectural ornaments saved
+\&from wreckers, such as a classical figure from Pennsylvania Station\*.
+\&T}\*THours\*TWed-Sat, 10-5, Sun 12-5
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TLocation\*TT{
+\&Eastern Parkway & Washington Ave\*., Brooklyn\*.
+\&T}
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TAdmission\*TFree
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TSubway\*T2,3 to Eastern Parkway\*.
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TTelephone\*T212-638-5000
+\&_
+\&T{
+\&New-York Historical Society
+\&T}\*TT{
+\&All the original paintings for Audubon's
+\&\*.I
+\&Birds of America
+\&\*.R
+\&are here, as are exhibits of American decorative arts, New York history,
+\&Hudson River school paintings, carriages, and glass paperweights\*.
+\&T}\*THours\*TT{
+\&Tues-Fri & Sun, 1-5; Sat 10-5
+\&T}
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TLocation\*TT{
+\&Central Park West & 77th St\*.
+\&T}
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TAdmission\*TFree
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TSubway\*TAA to 81st St\*.
+\&\e^\*T\e^\*TTelephone\*T212-873-3400
+\&\*.TE
+.br
+.ps \n(PS
+.vs \n(VSp
+.OU
+.fi
+.rr 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 98 99
+.rr 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
+.rr 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
+.rr 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
+.rr #a
+.rr #b
+.rr #c
+.rr #d
+.rr #e
+.rr YY
+.rr OJ
+.rr P
+.rr AV CW GW DW FL KN SJ A1 A2 A3 I1 I2 I3
+.in 0
+.hy 1
+.TS
+box;
+cb   s   s   s
+c | c | c   s
+ltiw(1i) | ltw(2i) | lp8| lw(1.6i)p8.
+Some Interesting Places
+_
+Name	Description	Practical Information
+_
+T{
+American Museum of Natural History
+T}	T{
+The collections fill 11.5 acres (Michelin) or 25 acres (MTA)
+of exhibition halls on four floors.  There is a full-sized replica
+of a blue whale and the world's largest star sapphire (stolen in 1964).
+T}	Hours	10-5, ex. Sun 11-5, Wed. to 9
+\^	\^	Location	T{
+Central Park West & 79th St.
+T}
+\^	\^	Admission	Donation: $1.00 asked
+\^	\^	Subway	AA to 81st St.
+\^	\^	Telephone	212-873-4225
+_
+Bronx Zoo	T{
+About a mile long and .6 mile wide, this is the largest zoo in America.
+A lion eats 18 pounds
+of meat a day while a sea lion eats 15 pounds of fish.
+T}	Hours	T{
+10-4:30 winter, to 5:00 summer
+T}
+\^	\^	Location	T{
+185th St. & Southern Blvd, the Bronx.
+T}
+\^	\^	Admission	$1.00, but Tu,We,Th free
+\^	\^	Subway	2, 5 to East Tremont Ave.
+\^	\^	Telephone	212-933-1759
+_
+Brooklyn Museum	T{
+Five floors of galleries contain American and ancient art.
+There are American period rooms and architectural ornaments saved
+from wreckers, such as a classical figure from Pennsylvania Station.
+T}	Hours	Wed-Sat, 10-5, Sun 12-5
+\^	\^	Location	T{
+Eastern Parkway & Washington Ave., Brooklyn.
+T}
+\^	\^	Admission	Free
+\^	\^	Subway	2,3 to Eastern Parkway.
+\^	\^	Telephone	212-638-5000
+_
+T{
+New-York Historical Society
+T}	T{
+All the original paintings for Audubon's
+.I
+Birds of America
+.R
+are here, as are exhibits of American decorative arts, New York history,
+Hudson River school paintings, carriages, and glass paperweights.
+T}	Hours	T{
+Tues-Fri & Sun, 1-5; Sat 10-5
+T}
+\^	\^	Location	T{
+Central Park West & 77th St.
+T}
+\^	\^	Admission	Free
+\^	\^	Subway	AA to 81st St.
+\^	\^	Telephone	212-873-3400
+.TE
+.rr 40
+.rr 41
+.rr 42
+.rr 43
+.rr 80
+.rr 81
+.rr 82
+.rr 83
+.rr 60
+.rr 61
+.rr 62
+.rr 63
+.rr #a
+.rr #b
+.rr #c
+.rr #d
+.rr #e
+.rr ##
+.ne 2i
+.fi
+.LP
+.SH
+Acknowledgments.
+.PP
+Many thanks are due to J. C. Blinn, who has done a large amount
+of testing and assisted with the design of the program.
+He has also written many of the more intelligible sentences
+in this document and helped edit all of it.
+All phototypesetting programs on \s-2UNIX\s0 are dependent on the work
+of J. F. Ossanna, whose assistance with this program in particular
+has been most helpful.
+This program is patterned on a table formatter originally
+written by J. F. Gimpel.
+The assistance of
+T. A. Dolotta, B. W. Kernighan, and J. N. Sturman
+is gratefully acknowledged.
+.SG MH-1274-MEL-troff
+.ne 2i
+.SH
+References.
+.IP [1]
+J. F. Ossanna,
+.I
+N\s-2ROFF\s0/T\s-2ROFF\s0 User's Manual,
+.R
+Computing Science Technical Report No. 54,
+Bell Laboratories, 1976.
+.IP [2]
+K. Thompson and D. M. Ritchie,
+``The U\s-2NIX\s0 Time-Sharing System,''
+\fIComm. ACM. \fB17\fR, pp. 365\(mi75 (1974).
+.IP [3]
+B. W. Kernighan and L. L. Cherry,
+``A System for Typesetting Mathematics,''
+\fIComm. ACM. \fB18\fR, pp. 151\(mi57 (1975).
+.IP [4]
+M. E. Lesk,
+.I
+Typing Documents on U\s-2NIX\s0,
+.R
+Bell Laboratories internal memorandum.
+.IP [5]
+M. E. Lesk and B. W. Kernighan,
+.I
+Computer Typesetting of Technical Journals on U\s-2NIX\s0,
+.R
+Computing Science Technical Report No. 44,
+Bell Laboratories, July 1976.
+.IP [6]
+J. R. Mashey and D. W. Smith,
+.I
+\s-2PWB/MM\s0 \(em Programmer's Workbench Memorandum Macros,
+.R
+Bell Laboratories memorandum.
+.sp 3
+.SH
+.ce
+List of Tbl Command Characters and Words
+.LP
+.EQ
+delim $$
+gfont roman
+.EN
+.TS
+center;
+cI cI cI
+aB lf1 nf1 .
+Command	Meaning	Section
+a A	Alphabetic subcolumn	2
+allbox	Draw box around all items	1
+b B	Boldface item	2
+box	Draw box around table	1
+c C	Centered column	2
+center	Center table in page	1
+doublebox	Doubled box around table	1
+e E	Equal width columns	2
+expand	Make table full line width	1
+f F	Font change	2
+i I	Italic item	2
+l L	Left adjusted column	2
+n N	Numerical column	2
+\fInnn\fR	Column separation	2
+p P	Point size change	2
+r R	Right adjusted column	2
+s S	Spanned item	2
+t T	Vertical spanning at top	2
+tab \fR(\fIx\|\fR)	Change data separator character	1
+$fat roman "T{" ~~ fat roman "T}"$	Text block	3
+v V	Vertical spacing change	2
+w W	Minimum width value	2
+\&\s+4.\s0\fIxx\fR	Included \fItroff\fR command	3
+\(bv	Vertical line	2
+\(bv\|\(bv	Double vertical line	2
+\&\s+4\v'4p'^\v'-4p'\s0	Vertical span	2
+\e\&\s+4\v'4p'^\v'-4p'\s0	Vertical span	3
+\&=	Double horizontal line	2,3
+\&$fat "_"$	Horizontal line	2,3
+\&$fat "\e_"$	Short horizontal line	3
+.TE
diff --git a/usr/games/ching b/usr/games/ching
new file mode 100755
index 0000000000..8a27012a08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/games/ching
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+cd /usr/games/ching.d
+case $1 in
+	[6-9]*)	set H=$1;shift;;
+esac
+if	test $H
+then	phx $H | nroff $* macros -
+else	cno | phx | nroff $* macros -
+fi
diff --git a/usr/lib/w2006 b/usr/lib/w2006
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..77bd7e7818
--- /dev/null
+++ b/usr/lib/w2006
@@ -0,0 +1,24473 @@
+10th
+1st
+2nd
+3rd
+4th
+5th
+6th
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+8th
+9th
+a
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+zoom
+Zoroaster
+Zoroastrian
+zounds
+Zurich
-- 
2.20.1