Initial commit of OpenSPARC T2 design and verification files.

[OpenSPARC-T2-DV] / tools / perl-5.8.0 / lib / 5.8.0 / Math / BigInt / Calc.pm

package Math::BigInt::Calc;

use 5.005;
use strict;
# use warnings; # dont use warnings for older Perls

require Exporter;
use vars qw/@ISA $VERSION/;
@ISA = qw(Exporter);

$VERSION = '0.30';

# Package to store unsigned big integers in decimal and do math with them

# Internally the numbers are stored in an array with at least 1 element, no
# leading zero parts (except the first) and in base 1eX where X is determined
# automatically at loading time to be the maximum possible value

# todo:
# - fully remove funky $# stuff (maybe)

# USE_MUL: due to problems on certain os (os390, posix-bc) "* 1e-5" is used
# instead of "/ 1e5" at some places, (marked with USE_MUL). Other platforms
# BS2000, some Crays need USE_DIV instead.
# The BEGIN block is used to determine which of the two variants gives the
# correct result.

##############################################################################
# global constants, flags and accessory

# constants for easier life
my $nan = 'NaN';
my ($MBASE,$BASE,$RBASE,$BASE_LEN,$MAX_VAL,$BASE_LEN2,$BASE_LEN_SMALL);
my ($AND_BITS,$XOR_BITS,$OR_BITS);
my ($AND_MASK,$XOR_MASK,$OR_MASK);
my ($LEN_CONVERT);

sub _base_len 
 {
 # set/get the BASE_LEN and assorted other, connected values
 # used only be the testsuite, set is used only by the BEGIN block below
 shift;

 my $b = shift;
 if (defined $b)
   {
   # find whether we can use mul or div or none in mul()/div()
   # (in last case reduce BASE_LEN_SMALL)
   $BASE_LEN_SMALL = $b+1;
   my $caught = 0;
   while (--$BASE_LEN_SMALL > 5)
     {
     $MBASE = int("1e".$BASE_LEN_SMALL);
     $RBASE = abs('1e-'.$BASE_LEN_SMALL);              # see USE_MUL
     $caught = 0;
     $caught += 1 if (int($MBASE * $RBASE) != 1);      # should be 1
     $caught += 2 if (int($MBASE / $MBASE) != 1);      # should be 1
     last if $caught != 3;
     }
   # BASE_LEN is used for anything else than mul()/div()
   $BASE_LEN = $BASE_LEN_SMALL;
   $BASE_LEN = shift if (defined $_[0]);               # one more arg?
   $BASE = int("1e".$BASE_LEN);

   $BASE_LEN2 = int($BASE_LEN_SMALL / 2);              # for mul shortcut
   $MBASE = int("1e".$BASE_LEN_SMALL);
   $RBASE = abs('1e-'.$BASE_LEN_SMALL);                # see USE_MUL
   $MAX_VAL = $MBASE-1;
   $LEN_CONVERT = 0;
   $LEN_CONVERT = 1 if $BASE_LEN_SMALL != $BASE_LEN;

   #print "BASE_LEN: $BASE_LEN MAX_VAL: $MAX_VAL BASE: $BASE RBASE: $RBASE ";
   #print "BASE_LEN_SMALL: $BASE_LEN_SMALL MBASE: $MBASE\n";

   undef &_mul;
   undef &_div;

   if ($caught & 1 != 0)
     {
     # must USE_MUL
     *{_mul} = \&_mul_use_mul;
     *{_div} = \&_div_use_mul;
     }
   else                # $caught must be 2, since it can't be 1 nor 3
     {
     # can USE_DIV instead
     *{_mul} = \&_mul_use_div;
     *{_div} = \&_div_use_div;
     }
   }
 return $BASE_LEN unless wantarray;
 return ($BASE_LEN, $AND_BITS, $XOR_BITS, $OR_BITS, $BASE_LEN_SMALL, $MAX_VAL);
 }

BEGIN
 {
 # from Daniel Pfeiffer: determine largest group of digits that is precisely
 # multipliable with itself plus carry
 # Test now changed to expect the proper pattern, not a result off by 1 or 2
 my ($e, $num) = 3;    # lowest value we will use is 3+1-1 = 3
 do 
   {
   $num = ('9' x ++$e) + 0;
   $num *= $num + 1.0;
   } while ("$num" =~ /9{$e}0{$e}/);   # must be a certain pattern
 $e--;                                 # last test failed, so retract one step
 # the limits below brush the problems with the test above under the rug:
 # the test should be able to find the proper $e automatically
 $e = 5 if $^O =~ /^uts/;      # UTS get's some special treatment
 $e = 5 if $^O =~ /^unicos/;   # unicos is also problematic (6 seems to work
                               # there, but we play safe)
 $e = 5 if $] < 5.006;         # cap, for older Perls
 $e = 7 if $e > 7;             # cap, for VMS, OS/390 and other 64 bit systems
                               # 8 fails inside random testsuite, so take 7

 # determine how many digits fit into an integer and can be safely added 
 # together plus carry w/o causing an overflow

 # this below detects 15 on a 64 bit system, because after that it becomes
 # 1e16  and not 1000000 :/ I can make it detect 18, but then I get a lot of
 # test failures. Ugh! (Tomake detect 18: uncomment lines marked with *)
 use integer;
 my $bi = 5;                   # approx. 16 bit
 $num = int('9' x $bi);
 # $num = 99999; # *
 # while ( ($num+$num+1) eq '1' . '9' x $bi)   # *
 while ( int($num+$num+1) eq '1' . '9' x $bi)
   {
   $bi++; $num = int('9' x $bi);
   # $bi++; $num *= 10; $num += 9;     # *
   }
 $bi--;                                # back off one step
 # by setting them equal, we ignore the findings and use the default
 # one-size-fits-all approach from former versions
 $bi = $e;                             # XXX, this should work always

 __PACKAGE__->_base_len($e,$bi);       # set and store

 # find out how many bits _and, _or and _xor can take (old default = 16)
 # I don't think anybody has yet 128 bit scalars, so let's play safe.
 local $^W = 0;        # don't warn about 'nonportable number'
 $AND_BITS = 15; $XOR_BITS = 15; $OR_BITS  = 15;

 # find max bits, we will not go higher than numberofbits that fit into $BASE
 # to make _and etc simpler (and faster for smaller, slower for large numbers)
 my $max = 16;
 while (2 ** $max < $BASE) { $max++; }
 {
   no integer;
   $max = 16 if $] < 5.006;    # older Perls might not take >16 too well
 }
 my ($x,$y,$z);
 do {
   $AND_BITS++;
   $x = oct('0b' . '1' x $AND_BITS); $y = $x & $x;
   $z = (2 ** $AND_BITS) - 1;
   } while ($AND_BITS < $max && $x == $z && $y == $x);
 $AND_BITS --;                                         # retreat one step
 do {
   $XOR_BITS++;
   $x = oct('0b' . '1' x $XOR_BITS); $y = $x ^ 0;
   $z = (2 ** $XOR_BITS) - 1;
   } while ($XOR_BITS < $max && $x == $z && $y == $x);
 $XOR_BITS --;                                         # retreat one step
 do {
   $OR_BITS++;
   $x = oct('0b' . '1' x $OR_BITS); $y = $x | $x;
   $z = (2 ** $OR_BITS) - 1;
   } while ($OR_BITS < $max && $x == $z && $y == $x);
 $OR_BITS --;                                          # retreat one step
 
 }

##############################################################################
# convert between the "small" and the "large" representation

sub _to_large
 {
 # take an array in base $BASE_LEN_SMALL and convert it in-place to $BASE_LEN
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

#  print "_to_large $BASE_LEN_SMALL => $BASE_LEN\n";

 return $x if $LEN_CONVERT == 0 ||             # nothing to converconvertor
        @$x == 1;                              # only one element => early out
 
 #     12345    67890    12345    67890   contents
 # to      3        2        1        0   index 
 #             123456  7890123  4567890   contents 

#  # faster variant
#  my @d; my $str = '';
#  my $z = '0' x $BASE_LEN_SMALL;
#  foreach (@$x)
#    {
#    # ... . 04321 . 000321
#    $str = substr($z.$_,-$BASE_LEN_SMALL,$BASE_LEN_SMALL) . $str;
#    if (length($str) > $BASE_LEN)
#      {
#      push @d, substr($str,-$BASE_LEN,$BASE_LEN);      # extract one piece
#      substr($str,-$BASE_LEN,$BASE_LEN) = '';          # remove it
#      }
#    }
#  push @d, $str if $str !~ /^0*$/;                     # extract last piece
#  @$x = @d;
#  $x->[-1] = int($x->[-1]);                    # strip leading zero
#  $x;

 my $ret = "";
 my $l = scalar @$x;           # number of parts
 $l --; $ret .= int($x->[$l]); $l--;
 my $z = '0' x ($BASE_LEN_SMALL-1);                            
 while ($l >= 0)
   {
   $ret .= substr($z.$x->[$l],-$BASE_LEN_SMALL); 
   $l--;
   }
 my $str = _new($c,\$ret);                     # make array
 @$x = @$str;                                  # clobber contents of $x
 $x->[-1] = int($x->[-1]);                     # strip leading zero
 }

sub _to_small
 {
 # take an array in base $BASE_LEN and convert it in-place to $BASE_LEN_SMALL
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

 return $x if $LEN_CONVERT == 0;               # nothing to do
 return $x if @$x == 1 && length(int($x->[0])) <= $BASE_LEN_SMALL;

 my $d = _str($c,$x);
 my $il = length($$d)-1;
 ## this leaves '00000' instead of int 0 and will be corrected after any op
 # clobber contents of $x
 @$x = reverse(unpack("a" . ($il % $BASE_LEN_SMALL+1) 
     . ("a$BASE_LEN_SMALL" x ($il / $BASE_LEN_SMALL)), $$d));  

 $x->[-1] = int($x->[-1]);                     # strip leading zero
 }

###############################################################################

sub _new
 {
 # (ref to string) return ref to num_array
 # Convert a number from string format (without sign) to internal base
 # 1ex format. Assumes normalized value as input.
 my $d = $_[1];
 my $il = length($$d)-1;
 # this leaves '00000' instead of int 0 and will be corrected after any op
 [ reverse(unpack("a" . ($il % $BASE_LEN+1) 
   . ("a$BASE_LEN" x ($il / $BASE_LEN)), $$d)) ];
 }                                                                             
 
BEGIN
 {
 $AND_MASK = __PACKAGE__->_new( \( 2 ** $AND_BITS ));
 $XOR_MASK = __PACKAGE__->_new( \( 2 ** $XOR_BITS ));
 $OR_MASK = __PACKAGE__->_new( \( 2 ** $OR_BITS ));
 }

sub _zero
 {
 # create a zero
 [ 0 ];
 }

sub _one
 {
 # create a one
 [ 1 ];
 }

sub _two
 {
 # create a two (used internally for shifting)
 [ 2 ];
 }

sub _copy
 {
 [ @{$_[1]} ];
 }

# catch and throw away
sub import { }

##############################################################################
# convert back to string and number

sub _str
 {
 # (ref to BINT) return num_str
 # Convert number from internal base 100000 format to string format.
 # internal format is always normalized (no leading zeros, "-0" => "+0")
 my $ar = $_[1];
 my $ret = "";

 my $l = scalar @$ar;          # number of parts
 return $nan if $l < 1;        # should not happen

 # handle first one different to strip leading zeros from it (there are no
 # leading zero parts in internal representation)
 $l --; $ret .= int($ar->[$l]); $l--;
 # Interestingly, the pre-padd method uses more time
 # the old grep variant takes longer (14 to 10 sec)
 my $z = '0' x ($BASE_LEN-1);                            
 while ($l >= 0)
   {
   $ret .= substr($z.$ar->[$l],-$BASE_LEN); # fastest way I could think of
   $l--;
   }
 \$ret;
 }                                                                             

sub _num
 {
 # Make a number (scalar int/float) from a BigInt object
 my $x = $_[1];
 return $x->[0] if scalar @$x == 1;  # below $BASE
 my $fac = 1;
 my $num = 0;
 foreach (@$x)
   {
   $num += $fac*$_; $fac *= $BASE;
   }
 $num; 
 }

##############################################################################
# actual math code

sub _add
 {
 # (ref to int_num_array, ref to int_num_array)
 # routine to add two base 1eX numbers
 # stolen from Knuth Vol 2 Algorithm A pg 231
 # there are separate routines to add and sub as per Knuth pg 233
 # This routine clobbers up array x, but not y.

 my ($c,$x,$y) = @_;

 return $x if (@$y == 1) && $y->[0] == 0;              # $x + 0 => $x
 if ((@$x == 1) && $x->[0] == 0)                       # 0 + $y => $y->copy
   {
   # twice as slow as $x = [ @$y ], but necc. to retain $x as ref :(
   @$x = @$y; return $x;               
   }

 # for each in Y, add Y to X and carry. If after that, something is left in
 # X, foreach in X add carry to X and then return X, carry
 # Trades one "$j++" for having to shift arrays, $j could be made integer
 # but this would impose a limit to number-length of 2**32.
 my $i; my $car = 0; my $j = 0;
 for $i (@$y)
   {
   $x->[$j] -= $BASE if $car = (($x->[$j] += $i + $car) >= $BASE) ? 1 : 0;
   $j++;
   }
 while ($car != 0)
   {
   $x->[$j] -= $BASE if $car = (($x->[$j] += $car) >= $BASE) ? 1 : 0; $j++;
   }
 $x;
 }                                                                             

sub _inc
 {
 # (ref to int_num_array, ref to int_num_array)
 # routine to add 1 to a base 1eX numbers
 # This routine clobbers up array x, but not y.
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

 for my $i (@$x)
   {
   return $x if (($i += 1) < $BASE);           # early out
   $i = 0;                                     # overflow, next
   }
 push @$x,1 if ($x->[-1] == 0);                # last overflowed, so extend
 $x;
 }                                                                             

sub _dec
 {
 # (ref to int_num_array, ref to int_num_array)
 # routine to add 1 to a base 1eX numbers
 # This routine clobbers up array x, but not y.
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

 my $MAX = $BASE-1;                            # since MAX_VAL based on MBASE
 for my $i (@$x)
   {
   last if (($i -= 1) >= 0);                   # early out
   $i = $MAX;                                  # overflow, next
   }
 pop @$x if $x->[-1] == 0 && @$x > 1;          # last overflowed (but leave 0)
 $x;
 }                                                                             

sub _sub
 {
 # (ref to int_num_array, ref to int_num_array, swap)
 # subtract base 1eX numbers -- stolen from Knuth Vol 2 pg 232, $x > $y
 # subtract Y from X by modifying x in place
 my ($c,$sx,$sy,$s) = @_;

 my $car = 0; my $i; my $j = 0;
 if (!$s)
   {
   #print "case 2\n";
   for $i (@$sx)
     {
     last unless defined $sy->[$j] || $car;
     $i += $BASE if $car = (($i -= ($sy->[$j] || 0) + $car) < 0); $j++;
     }
   # might leave leading zeros, so fix that
   return __strip_zeros($sx);
   }
 #print "case 1 (swap)\n";
 for $i (@$sx)
   {
   # we can't do an early out if $x is < than $y, since we
   # need to copy the high chunks from $y. Found by Bob Mathews.
   #last unless defined $sy->[$j] || $car;
   $sy->[$j] += $BASE
    if $car = (($sy->[$j] = $i-($sy->[$j]||0) - $car) < 0);
   $j++;
   }
 # might leave leading zeros, so fix that
 __strip_zeros($sy);
 }                                                                             

sub _square_use_mul
 {
 # compute $x ** 2 or $x * $x in-place and return $x
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

 # From: Handbook of Applied Cryptography by A. Menezes, P. van Oorschot and
 #       S. Vanstone., Chapter 14

 #14.16 Algorithm Multiple-precision squaring
 #INPUT: positive integer x = (xt 1 xt 2 ... x1 x0)b.
 #OUTPUT: x * x = x ** 2 in radix b representation. 
 #1. For i from 0 to (2t - 1) do: wi <- 0. 
 #2.  For i from 0 to (t - 1) do the following: 
 # 2.1 (uv)b w2i + xi * xi, w2i v, c u. 
 # 2.2 For j from (i + 1)to (t - 1) do the following: 
 #      (uv)b <- wi+j + 2*xj * xi + c, wi+j <- v, c <- u. 
 # 2.3 wi+t <- u. 
 #3. Return((w2t-1 w2t-2 ... w1 w0)b).

#  # Note: That description is crap. Half of the symbols are not explained or
#  # used with out beeing set.
#  my $t = scalar @$x;          # count
#  my ($c,$i,$j);
#  for ($i = 0; $i < $t; $i++)
#    {
#    $x->[$i] = $x->[$i*2] + $x[$i]*$x[$i];
#    $x->[$i*2] = $x[$i]; $c = $x[$i];
#    for ($j = $i+1; $j < $t; $j++)
#      {
#      $x->[$i] = $x->[$i+$j] + 2 * $x->[$i] * $x->[$j];
#      $x->[$i+$j] = $x[$j]; $c = $x[$i];
#      }
#    $x->[$i+$t] = $x[$i];
#    }
 $x;
 }

sub _mul_use_mul
 {
 # (ref to int_num_array, ref to int_num_array)
 # multiply two numbers in internal representation
 # modifies first arg, second need not be different from first
 my ($c,$xv,$yv) = @_;

 # shortcut for two very short numbers (improved by Nathan Zook)
 # works also if xv and yv are the same reference
 if ((@$xv == 1) && (@$yv == 1))
   {
   if (($xv->[0] *= $yv->[0]) >= $MBASE)
      {
      $xv->[0] = $xv->[0] - ($xv->[1] = int($xv->[0] * $RBASE)) * $MBASE;
      };
   return $xv;
   }
 # shortcut for result == 0
 if ( ((@$xv == 1) && ($xv->[0] == 0)) ||
      ((@$yv == 1) && ($yv->[0] == 0)) )
   {
   @$xv = (0);
   return $xv;
   }

 # since multiplying $x with $x fails, make copy in this case
 $yv = [@$xv] if $xv == $yv;   # same references?
#  $yv = [@$xv] if "$xv" eq "$yv";      # same references?

 # since multiplying $x with $x would fail here, use the faster squaring
#  return _square($c,$xv) if $xv == $yv;        # same reference?

 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_small($xv); $c->_to_small($yv);
   }

 my @prod = (); my ($prod,$car,$cty,$xi,$yi);

 for $xi (@$xv)
   {
   $car = 0; $cty = 0;

   # slow variant
#    for $yi (@$yv)
#      {
#      $prod = $xi * $yi + ($prod[$cty] || 0) + $car;
#      $prod[$cty++] =
#       $prod - ($car = int($prod * RBASE)) * $MBASE;  # see USE_MUL
#      }
#    $prod[$cty] += $car if $car; # need really to check for 0?
#    $xi = shift @prod;

   # faster variant
   # looping through this if $xi == 0 is silly - so optimize it away!
   $xi = (shift @prod || 0), next if $xi == 0;
   for $yi (@$yv)
     {
     $prod = $xi * $yi + ($prod[$cty] || 0) + $car;
##     this is actually a tad slower
##        $prod = $prod[$cty]; $prod += ($car + $xi * $yi);     # no ||0 here
     $prod[$cty++] =
      $prod - ($car = int($prod * $RBASE)) * $MBASE;  # see USE_MUL
     }
   $prod[$cty] += $car if $car; # need really to check for 0?
   $xi = shift @prod || 0;     # || 0 makes v5.005_3 happy
   }
 push @$xv, @prod;
 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_large($yv);
   $c->_to_large($xv);
   }
 else
   {
   __strip_zeros($xv);
   }
 $xv;
 }                                                                             

sub _mul_use_div
 {
 # (ref to int_num_array, ref to int_num_array)
 # multiply two numbers in internal representation
 # modifies first arg, second need not be different from first
 my ($c,$xv,$yv) = @_;

 # shortcut for two very short numbers (improved by Nathan Zook)
 # works also if xv and yv are the same reference
 if ((@$xv == 1) && (@$yv == 1))
   {
   if (($xv->[0] *= $yv->[0]) >= $MBASE)
       {
       $xv->[0] =
           $xv->[0] - ($xv->[1] = int($xv->[0] / $MBASE)) * $MBASE;
       };
   return $xv;
   }
 # shortcut for result == 0
 if ( ((@$xv == 1) && ($xv->[0] == 0)) ||
      ((@$yv == 1) && ($yv->[0] == 0)) )
   {
   @$xv = (0);
   return $xv;
   }


 # since multiplying $x with $x fails, make copy in this case
 $yv = [@$xv] if $xv == $yv;   # same references?
#  $yv = [@$xv] if "$xv" eq "$yv";      # same references?
 # since multiplying $x with $x would fail here, use the faster squaring
#  return _square($c,$xv) if $xv == $yv;        # same reference?

 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_small($xv); $c->_to_small($yv);
   }
 
 my @prod = (); my ($prod,$car,$cty,$xi,$yi);
 for $xi (@$xv)
   {
   $car = 0; $cty = 0;
   # looping through this if $xi == 0 is silly - so optimize it away!
   $xi = (shift @prod || 0), next if $xi == 0;
   for $yi (@$yv)
     {
     $prod = $xi * $yi + ($prod[$cty] || 0) + $car;
     $prod[$cty++] =
      $prod - ($car = int($prod / $MBASE)) * $MBASE;
     }
   $prod[$cty] += $car if $car; # need really to check for 0?
   $xi = shift @prod || 0;     # || 0 makes v5.005_3 happy
   }
 push @$xv, @prod;
 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_large($yv);
   $c->_to_large($xv);
   }
 else
   {
   __strip_zeros($xv);
   }
 $xv;
 }                                                                             

sub _div_use_mul
 {
 # ref to array, ref to array, modify first array and return remainder if 
 # in list context
 my ($c,$x,$yorg) = @_;

 if (@$x == 1 && @$yorg == 1)
   {
   # shortcut, $yorg and $x are two small numbers
   if (wantarray)
     {
     my $r = [ $x->[0] % $yorg->[0] ];
     $x->[0] = int($x->[0] / $yorg->[0]);
     return ($x,$r); 
     }
   else
     {
     $x->[0] = int($x->[0] / $yorg->[0]);
     return $x; 
     }
   }
 if (@$yorg == 1)
   {
   my $rem;
   $rem = _mod($c,[ @$x ],$yorg) if wantarray;

   # shortcut, $y is < $BASE
   my $j = scalar @$x; my $r = 0; 
   my $y = $yorg->[0]; my $b;
   while ($j-- > 0)
     {
     $b = $r * $MBASE + $x->[$j];
     $x->[$j] = int($b/$y);
     $r = $b % $y;
     }
   pop @$x if @$x > 1 && $x->[-1] == 0;        # splice up a leading zero 
   return ($x,$rem) if wantarray;
   return $x;
   }

 my $y = [ @$yorg ];                           # always make copy to preserve
 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_small($x); $c->_to_small($y);
   }

 my ($car,$bar,$prd,$dd,$xi,$yi,@q,$v2,$v1,@d,$tmp,$q,$u2,$u1,$u0);

 $car = $bar = $prd = 0;
 if (($dd = int($MBASE/($y->[-1]+1))) != 1) 
   {
   for $xi (@$x) 
     {
     $xi = $xi * $dd + $car;
     $xi -= ($car = int($xi * $RBASE)) * $MBASE;       # see USE_MUL
     }
   push(@$x, $car); $car = 0;
   for $yi (@$y) 
     {
     $yi = $yi * $dd + $car;
     $yi -= ($car = int($yi * $RBASE)) * $MBASE;       # see USE_MUL
     }
   }
 else 
   {
   push(@$x, 0);
   }
 @q = (); ($v2,$v1) = @$y[-2,-1];
 $v2 = 0 unless $v2;
 while ($#$x > $#$y) 
   {
   ($u2,$u1,$u0) = @$x[-3..-1];
   $u2 = 0 unless $u2;
   #warn "oups v1 is 0, u0: $u0 $y->[-2] $y->[-1] l ",scalar @$y,"\n"
   # if $v1 == 0;
    $q = (($u0 == $v1) ? $MAX_VAL : int(($u0*$MBASE+$u1)/$v1));
   --$q while ($v2*$q > ($u0*$MBASE+$u1-$q*$v1)*$MBASE+$u2);
   if ($q)
     {
     ($car, $bar) = (0,0);
     for ($yi = 0, $xi = $#$x-$#$y-1; $yi <= $#$y; ++$yi,++$xi) 
       {
       $prd = $q * $y->[$yi] + $car;
       $prd -= ($car = int($prd * $RBASE)) * $MBASE;   # see USE_MUL
       $x->[$xi] += $MBASE if ($bar = (($x->[$xi] -= $prd + $bar) < 0));
       }
     if ($x->[-1] < $car + $bar) 
       {
       $car = 0; --$q;
       for ($yi = 0, $xi = $#$x-$#$y-1; $yi <= $#$y; ++$yi,++$xi) 
         {
         $x->[$xi] -= $MBASE
          if ($car = (($x->[$xi] += $y->[$yi] + $car) > $MBASE));
         }
       }   
     }
     pop(@$x); unshift(@q, $q);
   }
 if (wantarray) 
   {
   @d = ();
   if ($dd != 1)  
     {
     $car = 0; 
     for $xi (reverse @$x) 
       {
       $prd = $car * $MBASE + $xi;
       $car = $prd - ($tmp = int($prd / $dd)) * $dd; # see USE_MUL
       unshift(@d, $tmp);
       }
     }
   else 
     {
     @d = @$x;
     }
   @$x = @q;
   my $d = \@d; 
   if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
     {
     $c->_to_large($x); $c->_to_large($d);
     }
   else
     {
     __strip_zeros($x);
     __strip_zeros($d);
     }
   return ($x,$d);
   }
 @$x = @q;
 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_large($x);
   }
 else
   {
   __strip_zeros($x);
   }
 $x;
 }

sub _div_use_div
 {
 # ref to array, ref to array, modify first array and return remainder if 
 # in list context
 my ($c,$x,$yorg) = @_;

 if (@$x == 1 && @$yorg == 1)
   {
   # shortcut, $yorg and $x are two small numbers
   if (wantarray)
     {
     my $r = [ $x->[0] % $yorg->[0] ];
     $x->[0] = int($x->[0] / $yorg->[0]);
     return ($x,$r); 
     }
   else
     {
     $x->[0] = int($x->[0] / $yorg->[0]);
     return $x; 
     }
   }
 if (@$yorg == 1)
   {
   my $rem;
   $rem = _mod($c,[ @$x ],$yorg) if wantarray;

   # shortcut, $y is < $BASE
   my $j = scalar @$x; my $r = 0; 
   my $y = $yorg->[0]; my $b;
   while ($j-- > 0)
     {
     $b = $r * $MBASE + $x->[$j];
     $x->[$j] = int($b/$y);
     $r = $b % $y;
     }
   pop @$x if @$x > 1 && $x->[-1] == 0;        # splice up a leading zero 
   return ($x,$rem) if wantarray;
   return $x;
   }

 my $y = [ @$yorg ];                           # always make copy to preserve
 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_small($x); $c->_to_small($y);
   }

 my ($car,$bar,$prd,$dd,$xi,$yi,@q,$v2,$v1,@d,$tmp,$q,$u2,$u1,$u0);

 $car = $bar = $prd = 0;
 if (($dd = int($MBASE/($y->[-1]+1))) != 1) 
   {
   for $xi (@$x) 
     {
     $xi = $xi * $dd + $car;
     $xi -= ($car = int($xi / $MBASE)) * $MBASE;
     }
   push(@$x, $car); $car = 0;
   for $yi (@$y) 
     {
     $yi = $yi * $dd + $car;
     $yi -= ($car = int($yi / $MBASE)) * $MBASE;
     }
   }
 else 
   {
   push(@$x, 0);
   }
 @q = (); ($v2,$v1) = @$y[-2,-1];
 $v2 = 0 unless $v2;
 while ($#$x > $#$y) 
   {
   ($u2,$u1,$u0) = @$x[-3..-1];
   $u2 = 0 unless $u2;
   #warn "oups v1 is 0, u0: $u0 $y->[-2] $y->[-1] l ",scalar @$y,"\n"
   # if $v1 == 0;
    $q = (($u0 == $v1) ? $MAX_VAL : int(($u0*$MBASE+$u1)/$v1));
   --$q while ($v2*$q > ($u0*$MBASE+$u1-$q*$v1)*$MBASE+$u2);
   if ($q)
     {
     ($car, $bar) = (0,0);
     for ($yi = 0, $xi = $#$x-$#$y-1; $yi <= $#$y; ++$yi,++$xi) 
       {
       $prd = $q * $y->[$yi] + $car;
       $prd -= ($car = int($prd / $MBASE)) * $MBASE;
       $x->[$xi] += $MBASE if ($bar = (($x->[$xi] -= $prd + $bar) < 0));
       }
     if ($x->[-1] < $car + $bar) 
       {
       $car = 0; --$q;
       for ($yi = 0, $xi = $#$x-$#$y-1; $yi <= $#$y; ++$yi,++$xi) 
         {
         $x->[$xi] -= $MBASE
          if ($car = (($x->[$xi] += $y->[$yi] + $car) > $MBASE));
         }
       }   
     }
   pop(@$x); unshift(@q, $q);
   }
 if (wantarray) 
   {
   @d = ();
   if ($dd != 1)  
     {
     $car = 0; 
     for $xi (reverse @$x) 
       {
       $prd = $car * $MBASE + $xi;
       $car = $prd - ($tmp = int($prd / $dd)) * $dd;
       unshift(@d, $tmp);
       }
     }
   else 
     {
     @d = @$x;
     }
   @$x = @q;
   my $d = \@d; 
   if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
     {
     $c->_to_large($x); $c->_to_large($d);
     }
   else
     {
     __strip_zeros($x);
     __strip_zeros($d);
     }
   return ($x,$d);
   }
 @$x = @q;
 if ($LEN_CONVERT != 0)
   {
   $c->_to_large($x);
   }
 else
   {
   __strip_zeros($x);
   }
 $x;
 }

##############################################################################
# testing

sub _acmp
 {
 # internal absolute post-normalized compare (ignore signs)
 # ref to array, ref to array, return <0, 0, >0
 # arrays must have at least one entry; this is not checked for

 my ($c,$cx,$cy) = @_;

 # fast comp based on number of array elements (aka pseudo-length)
 my $lxy = scalar @$cx - scalar @$cy;
 return -1 if $lxy < 0;                                # already differs, ret
 return 1 if $lxy > 0;                                 # ditto
 
 # now calculate length based on digits, not parts
 $lxy = _len($c,$cx) - _len($c,$cy);                   # difference
 return -1 if $lxy < 0;
 return 1 if $lxy > 0;

 # hm, same lengths,  but same contents?
 my $i = 0; my $a;
 # first way takes 5.49 sec instead of 4.87, but has the early out advantage
 # so grep is slightly faster, but more inflexible. hm. $_ instead of $k
 # yields 5.6 instead of 5.5 sec huh?
 # manual way (abort if unequal, good for early ne)
 my $j = scalar @$cx - 1;
 while ($j >= 0)
   {
   last if ($a = $cx->[$j] - $cy->[$j]); $j--;
   }
#  my $j = scalar @$cx;
#  while (--$j >= 0)
#    {
#    last if ($a = $cx->[$j] - $cy->[$j]);
#    }
 return 1 if $a > 0;
 return -1 if $a < 0;
 0;                                    # equal

 # while it early aborts, it is even slower than the manual variant
 #grep { return $a if ($a = $_ - $cy->[$i++]); } @$cx;
 # grep way, go trough all (bad for early ne)
 #grep { $a = $_ - $cy->[$i++]; } @$cx;
 #return $a;
 }

sub _len
 {
 # compute number of digits in bigint, minus the sign

 # int() because add/sub sometimes leaves strings (like '00005') instead of
 # '5' in this place, thus causing length() to report wrong length
 my $cx = $_[1];

 return (@$cx-1)*$BASE_LEN+length(int($cx->[-1]));
 }

sub _digit
 {
 # return the nth digit, negative values count backward
 # zero is rightmost, so _digit(123,0) will give 3
 my ($c,$x,$n) = @_;

 my $len = _len('',$x);

 $n = $len+$n if $n < 0;               # -1 last, -2 second-to-last
 $n = abs($n);                         # if negative was too big
 $len--; $n = $len if $n > $len;       # n to big?
 
 my $elem = int($n / $BASE_LEN);       # which array element
 my $digit = $n % $BASE_LEN;           # which digit in this element
 $elem = '0000'.@$x[$elem];            # get element padded with 0's
 return substr($elem,-$digit-1,1);
 }

sub _zeros
 {
 # return amount of trailing zeros in decimal
 # check each array elem in _m for having 0 at end as long as elem == 0
 # Upon finding a elem != 0, stop
 my $x = $_[1];
 my $zeros = 0; my $elem;
 foreach my $e (@$x)
   {
   if ($e != 0)
     {
     $elem = "$e";                             # preserve x
     $elem =~ s/.*?(0*$)/$1/;                  # strip anything not zero
     $zeros *= $BASE_LEN;                      # elems * 5
     $zeros += length($elem);                  # count trailing zeros
     last;                                     # early out
     }
   $zeros ++;                                  # real else branch: 50% slower!
   }
 $zeros;
 }

##############################################################################
# _is_* routines

sub _is_zero
 {
 # return true if arg (BINT or num_str) is zero (array '+', '0')
 my $x = $_[1];

 (((scalar @$x == 1) && ($x->[0] == 0))) <=> 0;
 }

sub _is_even
 {
 # return true if arg (BINT or num_str) is even
 my $x = $_[1];
 (!($x->[0] & 1)) <=> 0; 
 }

sub _is_odd
 {
 # return true if arg (BINT or num_str) is even
 my $x = $_[1];

 (($x->[0] & 1)) <=> 0; 
 }

sub _is_one
 {
 # return true if arg (BINT or num_str) is one (array '+', '1')
 my $x = $_[1];

 (scalar @$x == 1) && ($x->[0] == 1) <=> 0; 
 }

sub __strip_zeros
 {
 # internal normalization function that strips leading zeros from the array
 # args: ref to array
 my $s = shift;

 my $cnt = scalar @$s; # get count of parts
 my $i = $cnt-1;
 push @$s,0 if $i < 0;         # div might return empty results, so fix it

 return $s if @$s == 1;                # early out

 #print "strip: cnt $cnt i $i\n";
 # '0', '3', '4', '0', '0',
 #  0    1    2    3    4
 # cnt = 5, i = 4
 # i = 4
 # i = 3
 # => fcnt = cnt - i (5-2 => 3, cnt => 5-1 = 4, throw away from 4th pos)
 # >= 1: skip first part (this can be zero)
 while ($i > 0) { last if $s->[$i] != 0; $i--; }
 $i++; splice @$s,$i if ($i < $cnt); # $i cant be 0
 $s;                                                                    
 }                                                                             

###############################################################################
# check routine to test internal state of corruptions

sub _check
 {
 # used by the test suite
 my $x = $_[1];

 return "$x is not a reference" if !ref($x);

 # are all parts are valid?
 my $i = 0; my $j = scalar @$x; my ($e,$try);
 while ($i < $j)
   {
   $e = $x->[$i]; $e = 'undef' unless defined $e;
   $try = '=~ /^[\+]?[0-9]+\$/; '."($x, $e)";
   last if $e !~ /^[+]?[0-9]+$/;
   $try = '=~ /^[\+]?[0-9]+\$/; '."($x, $e) (stringify)";
   last if "$e" !~ /^[+]?[0-9]+$/;
   $try = '=~ /^[\+]?[0-9]+\$/; '."($x, $e) (cat-stringify)";
   last if '' . "$e" !~ /^[+]?[0-9]+$/;
   $try = ' < 0 || >= $BASE; '."($x, $e)";
   last if $e <0 || $e >= $BASE;
   # this test is disabled, since new/bnorm and certain ops (like early out
   # in add/sub) are allowed/expected to leave '00000' in some elements
   #$try = '=~ /^00+/; '."($x, $e)";
   #last if $e =~ /^00+/;
   $i++;
   }
 return "Illegal part '$e' at pos $i (tested: $try)" if $i < $j;
 return 0;
 }


###############################################################################
###############################################################################
# some optional routines to make BigInt faster

sub _mod
 {
 # if possible, use mod shortcut
 my ($c,$x,$yo) = @_;

 # slow way since $y to big
 if (scalar @$yo > 1)
   {
   my ($xo,$rem) = _div($c,$x,$yo);
   return $rem;
   }
 my $y = $yo->[0];
 # both are single element arrays
 if (scalar @$x == 1)
   {
   $x->[0] %= $y;
   return $x;
   }

 # @y is single element, but @x has more than one
 my $b = $BASE % $y;
 if ($b == 0)
   {
   # when BASE % Y == 0 then (B * BASE) % Y == 0
   # (B * BASE) % $y + A % Y => A % Y
   # so need to consider only last element: O(1)
   $x->[0] %= $y;
   }
 elsif ($b == 1)
   {
   # else need to go trough all elements: O(N), but loop is a bit simplified
   my $r = 0;
   foreach (@$x)
     {
     $r = ($r + $_) % $y;              # not much faster, but heh...
     #$r += $_ % $y; $r %= $y;
     }
   $r = 0 if $r == $y;
   $x->[0] = $r;
   }
 else
   {
   # else need to go trough all elements: O(N)
   my $r = 0; my $bm = 1;
   foreach (@$x)
     {
     $r = ($_ * $bm + $r) % $y;
     $bm = ($bm * $b) % $y;

     #$r += ($_ % $y) * $bm;
     #$bm *= $b;
     #$bm %= $y;
     #$r %= $y;
     }
   $r = 0 if $r == $y;
   $x->[0] = $r;
   }
 splice (@$x,1);
 $x;
 }

##############################################################################
# shifts

sub _rsft
 {
 my ($c,$x,$y,$n) = @_;

 if ($n != 10)
   {
   $n = _new($c,\$n); return _div($c,$x, _pow($c,$n,$y));
   }

 # shortcut (faster) for shifting by 10)
 # multiples of $BASE_LEN
 my $dst = 0;                          # destination
 my $src = _num($c,$y);                # as normal int
 my $rem = $src % $BASE_LEN;           # remainder to shift
 $src = int($src / $BASE_LEN);         # source
 if ($rem == 0)
   {
   splice (@$x,0,$src);                # even faster, 38.4 => 39.3
   }
 else
   {
   my $len = scalar @$x - $src;        # elems to go
   my $vd; my $z = '0'x $BASE_LEN;
   $x->[scalar @$x] = 0;               # avoid || 0 test inside loop
   while ($dst < $len)
     {
     $vd = $z.$x->[$src];
     $vd = substr($vd,-$BASE_LEN,$BASE_LEN-$rem);
     $src++;
     $vd = substr($z.$x->[$src],-$rem,$rem) . $vd;
     $vd = substr($vd,-$BASE_LEN,$BASE_LEN) if length($vd) > $BASE_LEN;
     $x->[$dst] = int($vd);
     $dst++;
     }
   splice (@$x,$dst) if $dst > 0;              # kill left-over array elems
   pop @$x if $x->[-1] == 0 && @$x > 1;        # kill last element if 0
   } # else rem == 0
 $x;
 }

sub _lsft
 {
 my ($c,$x,$y,$n) = @_;

 if ($n != 10)
   {
   $n = _new($c,\$n); return _mul($c,$x, _pow($c,$n,$y));
   }

 # shortcut (faster) for shifting by 10) since we are in base 10eX
 # multiples of $BASE_LEN:
 my $src = scalar @$x;                 # source
 my $len = _num($c,$y);                # shift-len as normal int
 my $rem = $len % $BASE_LEN;           # remainder to shift
 my $dst = $src + int($len/$BASE_LEN); # destination
 my $vd;                               # further speedup
 $x->[$src] = 0;                       # avoid first ||0 for speed
 my $z = '0' x $BASE_LEN;
 while ($src >= 0)
   {
   $vd = $x->[$src]; $vd = $z.$vd;
   $vd = substr($vd,-$BASE_LEN+$rem,$BASE_LEN-$rem);
   $vd .= $src > 0 ? substr($z.$x->[$src-1],-$BASE_LEN,$rem) : '0' x $rem;
   $vd = substr($vd,-$BASE_LEN,$BASE_LEN) if length($vd) > $BASE_LEN;
   $x->[$dst] = int($vd);
   $dst--; $src--;
   }
 # set lowest parts to 0
 while ($dst >= 0) { $x->[$dst--] = 0; }
 # fix spurios last zero element
 splice @$x,-1 if $x->[-1] == 0;
 $x;
 }

sub _pow
 {
 # power of $x to $y
 # ref to array, ref to array, return ref to array
 my ($c,$cx,$cy) = @_;

 my $pow2 = _one();

 my $y_bin = ${_as_bin($c,$cy)}; $y_bin =~ s/^0b//;
 my $len = length($y_bin);
 while (--$len > 0)
   {
   _mul($c,$pow2,$cx) if substr($y_bin,$len,1) eq '1';         # is odd?
   _mul($c,$cx,$cx);
   }

 _mul($c,$cx,$pow2);
 $cx;
 }

sub _fac
 {
 # factorial of $x
 # ref to array, return ref to array
 my ($c,$cx) = @_;

 if ((@$cx == 1) && ($cx->[0] <= 2))
   {
   $cx->[0] = 1 * ($cx->[0]||1); # 0,1 => 1, 2 => 2
   return $cx;
   }

 # go forward until $base is exceeded
 # limit is either $x or $base (x == 100 means as result too high)
 my $steps = 100; $steps = $cx->[0] if @$cx == 1;
 my $r = 2; my $cf = 3; my $step = 1; my $last = $r;
 while ($r < $BASE && $step < $steps)
   {
   $last = $r; $r *= $cf++; $step++;
   }
 if ((@$cx == 1) && ($step == $cx->[0]))
   {
   # completely done
   $cx = [$last];
   return $cx;
   }
 my $n = _copy($c,$cx);
 $cx = [$last];

 #$cx = _one();
 while (!(@$n == 1 && $n->[0] == $step))
   {
   _mul($c,$cx,$n); _dec($c,$n);
   }
 $cx;
 }

use constant DEBUG => 0;

my $steps = 0;

sub steps { $steps };

sub _sqrt
 {
 # square-root of $x
 # ref to array, return ref to array
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

 if (scalar @$x == 1)
   {
   # fit's into one Perl scalar
   $x->[0] = int(sqrt($x->[0]));
   return $x;
   } 
 my $y = _copy($c,$x);
 # hopefully _len/2 is < $BASE, the -1 is to always undershot the guess
 # since our guess will "grow"
 my $l = int((_len($c,$x)-1) / 2);     

 my $lastelem = $x->[-1];      # for guess
 my $elems = scalar @$x - 1;
 # not enough digits, but could have more?
 if ((length($lastelem) <= 3) && ($elems > 1)) 
   {
   # right-align with zero pad
   my $len = length($lastelem) & 1;
   print "$lastelem => " if DEBUG;
   $lastelem .= substr($x->[-2] . '0' x $BASE_LEN,0,$BASE_LEN);
   # former odd => make odd again, or former even to even again
   $lastelem = $lastelem / 10 if (length($lastelem) & 1) != $len;      
   print "$lastelem\n" if DEBUG;
   }

 # construct $x (instead of _lsft($c,$x,$l,10)
 my $r = $l % $BASE_LEN;       # 10000 00000 00000 00000 ($BASE_LEN=5)
 $l = int($l / $BASE_LEN);
 print "l =  $l " if DEBUG;
 
 splice @$x,$l;                # keep ref($x), but modify it

 # we make the first part of the guess not '1000...0' but int(sqrt($lastelem))
 # that gives us:
 # 14400 00000 => sqrt(14400) => 120
 # 144000 000000 => sqrt(144000) => 379

 # $x->[$l--] = int('1' . '0' x $r);                   # old way of guessing
 print "$lastelem (elems $elems) => " if DEBUG;
 $lastelem = $lastelem / 10 if ($elems & 1 == 1);              # odd or even?
 my $g = sqrt($lastelem); $g =~ s/\.//;                        # 2.345 => 2345
 $r -= 1 if $elems & 1 == 0;                                   # 70 => 7

 # padd with zeros if result is too short
 $x->[$l--] = int(substr($g . '0' x $r,0,$r+1));
 print "now ",$x->[-1] if DEBUG;
 print " would have been ", int('1' . '0' x $r),"\n" if DEBUG;
 
 # If @$x > 1, we could compute the second elem of the guess, too, to create
 # an even better guess. Not implemented yet.
 $x->[$l--] = 0 while ($l >= 0);       # all other digits of guess are zero

 print "start x= ",${_str($c,$x)},"\n" if DEBUG;
 my $two = _two();
 my $last = _zero();
 my $lastlast = _zero();
 $steps = 0 if DEBUG;
 while (_acmp($c,$last,$x) != 0 && _acmp($c,$lastlast,$x) != 0)
   {
   $steps++ if DEBUG;
   $lastlast = _copy($c,$last);
   $last = _copy($c,$x);
   _add($c,$x, _div($c,_copy($c,$y),$x));
   _div($c,$x, $two );
   print "      x= ",${_str($c,$x)},"\n" if DEBUG;
   }
 print "\nsteps in sqrt: $steps, " if DEBUG;
 _dec($c,$x) if _acmp($c,$y,_mul($c,_copy($c,$x),$x)) < 0;     # overshot? 
 print " final ",$x->[-1],"\n" if DEBUG;
 $x;
 }

##############################################################################
# binary stuff

sub _and
 {
 my ($c,$x,$y) = @_;

 # the shortcut makes equal, large numbers _really_ fast, and makes only a
 # very small performance drop for small numbers (e.g. something with less
 # than 32 bit) Since we optimize for large numbers, this is enabled.
 return $x if _acmp($c,$x,$y) == 0;            # shortcut
 
 my $m = _one(); my ($xr,$yr);
 my $mask = $AND_MASK;

 my $x1 = $x;
 my $y1 = _copy($c,$y);                        # make copy
 $x = _zero();
 my ($b,$xrr,$yrr);
 use integer;
 while (!_is_zero($c,$x1) && !_is_zero($c,$y1))
   {
   ($x1, $xr) = _div($c,$x1,$mask);
   ($y1, $yr) = _div($c,$y1,$mask);

   # make ints() from $xr, $yr
   # this is when the AND_BITS are greater tahn $BASE and is slower for
   # small (<256 bits) numbers, but faster for large numbers. Disabled
   # due to KISS principle

#    $b = 1; $xrr = 0; foreach (@$xr) { $xrr += $_ * $b; $b *= $BASE; }
#    $b = 1; $yrr = 0; foreach (@$yr) { $yrr += $_ * $b; $b *= $BASE; }
#    _add($c,$x, _mul($c, _new( $c, \($xrr & $yrr) ), $m) );
   
   # 0+ due to '&' doesn't work in strings
   _add($c,$x, _mul($c, [ 0+$xr->[0] & 0+$yr->[0] ], $m) );
   _mul($c,$m,$mask);
   }
 $x;
 }

sub _xor
 {
 my ($c,$x,$y) = @_;

 return _zero() if _acmp($c,$x,$y) == 0;       # shortcut (see -and)

 my $m = _one(); my ($xr,$yr);
 my $mask = $XOR_MASK;

 my $x1 = $x;
 my $y1 = _copy($c,$y);                        # make copy
 $x = _zero();
 my ($b,$xrr,$yrr);
 use integer;
 while (!_is_zero($c,$x1) && !_is_zero($c,$y1))
   {
   ($x1, $xr) = _div($c,$x1,$mask);
   ($y1, $yr) = _div($c,$y1,$mask);
   # make ints() from $xr, $yr (see _and())
   #$b = 1; $xrr = 0; foreach (@$xr) { $xrr += $_ * $b; $b *= $BASE; }
   #$b = 1; $yrr = 0; foreach (@$yr) { $yrr += $_ * $b; $b *= $BASE; }
   #_add($c,$x, _mul($c, _new( $c, \($xrr ^ $yrr) ), $m) );

   # 0+ due to '^' doesn't work in strings
   _add($c,$x, _mul($c, [ 0+$xr->[0] ^ 0+$yr->[0] ], $m) );
   _mul($c,$m,$mask);
   }
 # the loop stops when the shorter of the two numbers is exhausted
 # the remainder of the longer one will survive bit-by-bit, so we simple
 # multiply-add it in
 _add($c,$x, _mul($c, $x1, $m) ) if !_is_zero($c,$x1);
 _add($c,$x, _mul($c, $y1, $m) ) if !_is_zero($c,$y1);
 
 $x;
 }

sub _or
 {
 my ($c,$x,$y) = @_;

 return $x if _acmp($c,$x,$y) == 0;            # shortcut (see _and)

 my $m = _one(); my ($xr,$yr);
 my $mask = $OR_MASK;

 my $x1 = $x;
 my $y1 = _copy($c,$y);                        # make copy
 $x = _zero();
 my ($b,$xrr,$yrr);
 use integer;
 while (!_is_zero($c,$x1) && !_is_zero($c,$y1))
   {
   ($x1, $xr) = _div($c,$x1,$mask);
   ($y1, $yr) = _div($c,$y1,$mask);
   # make ints() from $xr, $yr (see _and())
#    $b = 1; $xrr = 0; foreach (@$xr) { $xrr += $_ * $b; $b *= $BASE; }
#    $b = 1; $yrr = 0; foreach (@$yr) { $yrr += $_ * $b; $b *= $BASE; }
#    _add($c,$x, _mul($c, _new( $c, \($xrr | $yrr) ), $m) );
   
   # 0+ due to '|' doesn't work in strings
   _add($c,$x, _mul($c, [ 0+$xr->[0] | 0+$yr->[0] ], $m) );
   _mul($c,$m,$mask);
   }
 # the loop stops when the shorter of the two numbers is exhausted
 # the remainder of the longer one will survive bit-by-bit, so we simple
 # multiply-add it in
 _add($c,$x, _mul($c, $x1, $m) ) if !_is_zero($c,$x1);
 _add($c,$x, _mul($c, $y1, $m) ) if !_is_zero($c,$y1);
 
 $x;
 }

sub _as_hex
 {
 # convert a decimal number to hex (ref to array, return ref to string)
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

 my $x1 = _copy($c,$x);

 my $es = '';
 my ($xr, $h, $x10000);
 if ($] >= 5.006)
   {
   $x10000 = [ 0x10000 ]; $h = 'h4';
   }
 else
   {
   $x10000 = [ 0x1000 ]; $h = 'h3';
   }
 while (! _is_zero($c,$x1))
   {
   ($x1, $xr) = _div($c,$x1,$x10000);
   $es .= unpack($h,pack('v',$xr->[0]));
   }
 $es = reverse $es;
 $es =~ s/^[0]+//;   # strip leading zeros
 $es = '0x' . $es;
 \$es;
 }

sub _as_bin
 {
 # convert a decimal number to bin (ref to array, return ref to string)
 my ($c,$x) = @_;

 my $x1 = _copy($c,$x);

 my $es = '';
 my ($xr, $b, $x10000);
 if ($] >= 5.006)
   {
   $x10000 = [ 0x10000 ]; $b = 'b16';
   }
 else
   {
   $x10000 = [ 0x1000 ]; $b = 'b12';
   }
 while (! _is_zero($c,$x1))
   {
   ($x1, $xr) = _div($c,$x1,$x10000);
   $es .= unpack($b,pack('v',$xr->[0]));
   }
 $es = reverse $es;
 $es =~ s/^[0]+//;   # strip leading zeros
 $es = '0b' . $es;
 \$es;
 }

sub _from_hex
 {
 # convert a hex number to decimal (ref to string, return ref to array)
 my ($c,$hs) = @_;

 my $mul = _one();
 my $m = [ 0x10000 ];                          # 16 bit at a time
 my $x = _zero();

 my $len = length($$hs)-2;
 $len = int($len/4);                           # 4-digit parts, w/o '0x'
 my $val; my $i = -4;
 while ($len >= 0)
   {
   $val = substr($$hs,$i,4);
   $val =~ s/^[+-]?0x// if $len == 0;          # for last part only because
   $val = hex($val);                           # hex does not like wrong chars
   $i -= 4; $len --;
   _add ($c, $x, _mul ($c, [ $val ], $mul ) ) if $val != 0;
   _mul ($c, $mul, $m ) if $len >= 0;          # skip last mul
   }
 $x;
 }

sub _from_bin
 {
 # convert a hex number to decimal (ref to string, return ref to array)
 my ($c,$bs) = @_;

 # instead of converting 8 bit at a time, it is faster to convert the
 # number to hex, and then call _from_hex.

 my $hs = $$bs;
 $hs =~ s/^[+-]?0b//;                                  # remove sign and 0b
 my $l = length($hs);                                  # bits
 $hs = '0' x (8-($l % 8)) . $hs if ($l % 8) != 0;      # padd left side w/ 0
 my $h = unpack('H*', pack ('B*', $hs));               # repack as hex
 return $c->_from_hex(\('0x'.$h));

 my $mul = _one();
 my $m = [ 0x100 ];                            # 8 bit at a time
 my $x = _zero();

 my $len = length($$bs)-2;
 $len = int($len/8);                           # 4-digit parts, w/o '0x'
 my $val; my $i = -8;
 while ($len >= 0)
   {
   $val = substr($$bs,$i,8);
   $val =~ s/^[+-]?0b// if $len == 0;          # for last part only

   $val = ord(pack('B8',substr('00000000'.$val,-8,8))); 

   $i -= 8; $len --;
   _add ($c, $x, _mul ($c, [ $val ], $mul ) ) if $val != 0;
   _mul ($c, $mul, $m ) if $len >= 0;          # skip last mul
   }
 $x;
 }

##############################################################################
# special modulus functions

# not ready yet, since it would need to deal with unsigned numbers
sub _modinv1
 {
 # inverse modulus
 my ($c,$num,$mod) = @_;

 my $u = _zero(); my $u1 = _one();
 my $a = _copy($c,$mod); my $b = _copy($c,$num);

 # Euclid's Algorithm for bgcd(), only that we calc bgcd() ($a) and the
 # result ($u) at the same time
 while (!_is_zero($c,$b))
   {
#    print ${_str($c,$a)}, " ", ${_str($c,$b)}, " ", ${_str($c,$u)}, " ",
#     ${_str($c,$u1)}, "\n";
   ($a, my $q, $b) = ($b, _div($c,$a,$b));
#    print ${_str($c,$a)}, " ", ${_str($c,$q)}, " ", ${_str($c,$b)}, "\n";
   # original: ($u,$u1) = ($u1, $u - $u1 * $q);
   my $t = _copy($c,$u);
   $u = _copy($c,$u1);
   _mul($c,$u1,$q);
   $u1 = _sub($t,$u1);
#    print ${_str($c,$a)}, " ", ${_str($c,$b)}, " ", ${_str($c,$u)}, " ",
#     ${_str($c,$u1)}, "\n";
   }

 # if the gcd is not 1, then return NaN
 return undef unless _is_one($c,$a);

 $num = _mod($c,$u,$mod);
#  print ${_str($c,$num)},"\n";
 $num;
 }

sub _modpow
 {
 # modulus of power ($x ** $y) % $z
 my ($c,$num,$exp,$mod) = @_;

 # in the trivial case,
 if (_is_one($c,$mod))
   {
   splice @$num,0,1; $num->[0] = 0;
   return $num;
   }
 if ((scalar @$num == 1) && (($num->[0] == 0) || ($num->[0] == 1)))
   {
   $num->[0] = 1;
   return $num;
   }

#  $num = _mod($c,$num,$mod);   # this does not make it faster

 my $acc = _copy($c,$num); my $t = _one();

 my $expbin = ${_as_bin($c,$exp)}; $expbin =~ s/^0b//;
 my $len = length($expbin);
 while (--$len >= 0)
   {
   if ( substr($expbin,$len,1) eq '1')                 # is_odd
     {
     _mul($c,$t,$acc);
     $t = _mod($c,$t,$mod);
     }
   _mul($c,$acc,$acc);
   $acc = _mod($c,$acc,$mod);
   }
 @$num = @$t;
 $num;
 }

##############################################################################
##############################################################################

1;
__END__

=head1 NAME

Math::BigInt::Calc - Pure Perl module to support Math::BigInt

=head1 SYNOPSIS

Provides support for big integer calculations. Not intended to be used by other
modules (except Math::BigInt::Cached). Other modules which sport the same
functions can also be used to support Math::Bigint, like Math::BigInt::Pari.

=head1 DESCRIPTION

In order to allow for multiple big integer libraries, Math::BigInt was
rewritten to use library modules for core math routines. Any module which
follows the same API as this can be used instead by using the following:

       use Math::BigInt lib => 'libname';

'libname' is either the long name ('Math::BigInt::Pari'), or only the short
version like 'Pari'.

=head1 EXPORT

The following functions MUST be defined in order to support the use by
Math::BigInt:

       _new(string)    return ref to new object from ref to decimal string
       _zero()         return a new object with value 0
       _one()          return a new object with value 1

       _str(obj)       return ref to a string representing the object
       _num(obj)       returns a Perl integer/floating point number
                       NOTE: because of Perl numeric notation defaults,
                       the _num'ified obj may lose accuracy due to 
                       machine-dependend floating point size limitations
                   
       _add(obj,obj)   Simple addition of two objects
       _mul(obj,obj)   Multiplication of two objects
       _div(obj,obj)   Division of the 1st object by the 2nd
                       In list context, returns (result,remainder).
                       NOTE: this is integer math, so no
                       fractional part will be returned.
       _sub(obj,obj)   Simple subtraction of 1 object from another
                       a third, optional parameter indicates that the params
                       are swapped. In this case, the first param needs to
                       be preserved, while you can destroy the second.
                       sub (x,y,1) => return x - y and keep x intact!
       _dec(obj)       decrement object by one (input is garant. to be > 0)
       _inc(obj)       increment object by one


       _acmp(obj,obj)  <=> operator for objects (return -1, 0 or 1)

       _len(obj)       returns count of the decimal digits of the object
       _digit(obj,n)   returns the n'th decimal digit of object

       _is_one(obj)    return true if argument is +1
       _is_zero(obj)   return true if argument is 0
       _is_even(obj)   return true if argument is even (0,2,4,6..)
       _is_odd(obj)    return true if argument is odd (1,3,5,7..)

       _copy           return a ref to a true copy of the object

       _check(obj)     check whether internal representation is still intact
                       return 0 for ok, otherwise error message as string

The following functions are optional, and can be defined if the underlying lib
has a fast way to do them. If undefined, Math::BigInt will use pure Perl (hence
slow) fallback routines to emulate these:

       _from_hex(str)  return ref to new object from ref to hexadecimal string
       _from_bin(str)  return ref to new object from ref to binary string
       
       _as_hex(str)    return ref to scalar string containing the value as
                       unsigned hex string, with the '0x' prepended.
                       Leading zeros must be stripped.
       _as_bin(str)    Like as_hex, only as binary string containing only
                       zeros and ones. Leading zeros must be stripped and a
                       '0b' must be prepended.
       
       _rsft(obj,N,B)  shift object in base B by N 'digits' right
                       For unsupported bases B, return undef to signal failure
       _lsft(obj,N,B)  shift object in base B by N 'digits' left
                       For unsupported bases B, return undef to signal failure
       
       _xor(obj1,obj2) XOR (bit-wise) object 1 with object 2
                       Note: XOR, AND and OR pad with zeros if size mismatches
       _and(obj1,obj2) AND (bit-wise) object 1 with object 2
       _or(obj1,obj2)  OR (bit-wise) object 1 with object 2

       _mod(obj,obj)   Return remainder of div of the 1st by the 2nd object
       _sqrt(obj)      return the square root of object (truncate to int)
       _fac(obj)       return factorial of object 1 (1*2*3*4..)
       _pow(obj,obj)   return object 1 to the power of object 2
       _gcd(obj,obj)   return Greatest Common Divisor of two objects
       
       _zeros(obj)     return number of trailing decimal zeros
       _modinv         return inverse modulus
       _modpow         return modulus of power ($x ** $y) % $z

Input strings come in as unsigned but with prefix (i.e. as '123', '0xabc'
or '0b1101').

Testing of input parameter validity is done by the caller, so you need not
worry about underflow (f.i. in C<_sub()>, C<_dec()>) nor about division by
zero or similar cases.

The first parameter can be modified, that includes the possibility that you
return a reference to a completely different object instead. Although keeping
the reference and just changing it's contents is prefered over creating and
returning a different reference.

Return values are always references to objects or strings. Exceptions are
C<_lsft()> and C<_rsft()>, which return undef if they can not shift the
argument. This is used to delegate shifting of bases different than the one
you can support back to Math::BigInt, which will use some generic code to
calculate the result.

=head1 WRAP YOUR OWN

If you want to port your own favourite c-lib for big numbers to the
Math::BigInt interface, you can take any of the already existing modules as
a rough guideline. You should really wrap up the latest BigInt and BigFloat
testsuites with your module, and replace in them any of the following:

       use Math::BigInt;

by this:

       use Math::BigInt lib => 'yourlib';

This way you ensure that your library really works 100% within Math::BigInt.

=head1 LICENSE

This program is free software; you may redistribute it and/or modify it under
the same terms as Perl itself. 

=head1 AUTHORS

Original math code by Mark Biggar, rewritten by Tels L<http://bloodgate.com/>
in late 2000, 2001.
Seperated from BigInt and shaped API with the help of John Peacock.

=head1 SEE ALSO

L<Math::BigInt>, L<Math::BigFloat>, L<Math::BigInt::BitVect>,
L<Math::BigInt::GMP>, L<Math::BigInt::Cached> and L<Math::BigInt::Pari>.

=cut