+.na
+.bl 15
+.tr |
+.in 0
+.ce
+UNIX PROGRAMMER'S MANUAL
+
+.ce
+Third Edition
+
+
+
+.ce 3
+K. Thompson
+
+D. M. Ritchie
+
+
+
+
+.ce
+February, 1973
+.sp 15
+.ce 7
+Copyright \e8c\e9 1972
+Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
+
+No part of this document may be reproduced,
+or distributed outside the Laboratories, without
+the written permission of Bell Telephone Laboratories.
+.bp
+.fo ''- % -''
+.ro
+.bl 2
+.ce 2
+PREFACE
+to the Third Edition
+
+
+In the months since the last appearance of this manual,
+many changes have occurred
+both in the system itself and in the way it is
+used.
+
+Perhaps most obviously,
+there have been additions, deletions, and modifications
+to the system and its software.
+It is these changes, of course, that
+caused the appearance of this revised manual.
+
+Second, the number of people spending
+an appreciable amount
+of time writing UNIX software has increased.
+Credit is due
+to L.|L.|Cherry, M.|D.|McIlroy, L.|E.|McMahon, R.|Morris,
+J.|F.|Ossanna,
+and E.|N.|Pinson
+for their contributions.
+
+Finally, the number of UNIX installations
+has grown to 16, with more expected.
+None of these has exactly the same complement
+of hardware or software.
+Therefore, at any particular installation,
+it is quite possible that this manual will
+give inappropriate information.
+.a
+
+In particular,
+.ul 3
+any system which uses a PDP-11/20
+processor will not include all the software described
+herein, nor will the software behave the same way.
+The second, or even the first, edition
+of this manual is likely to be more
+appropriate.
+
+Besides additions, deletions, and
+modifications to the writeups in each section,
+this manual differs from its predecessors
+in two ways:
+all the commands used for system maintenance
+and not intended for normal users have been moved
+to a new section VIII;
+and there is a new "How to Get Started"
+chapter that gives some elementary facts
+and many pointers to other sections.
+.bp
+.bl 2
+.ce
+INTRODUCTION TO THIS MANUAL
+
+
+This manual gives descriptions of the publicly available
+features of UNIX.
+It provides neither a general
+overview (see "The UNIX Time-sharing System" for that)
+nor details of the implementation of the system (which
+remain to be disclosed).
+
+Within the area it surveys, this manual attempts
+to be as complete and timely as possible.
+A conscious
+decision was made to describe each program
+in exactly the state it was in at the time
+its manual section
+was prepared.
+In particular, the
+desire to describe something as it should be, not as it is,
+was resisted.
+Inevitably, this means that
+many sections will soon be out of date.
+(The rate of
+change of the system is so great that a dismayingly
+large number of early sections
+had to be modified while the rest were being written.
+The unbounded effort required to stay up-to-date
+is best indicated by the fact that several of the programs
+described were written specifically to aid in preparation
+of this manual!)
+
+This manual is divided into
+eight sections:
+
+ I. Commands
+ II. System calls
+ III. Subroutines
+ IV. Special files
+ V. File formats
+ VI. User-maintained programs
+ VII. Miscellaneous
+ VIII. Maintenance
+
+Commands are programs intended to be invoked directly by
+the user, in contradistinction to subroutines, which are
+intended to be called by the user's programs.
+Commands generally reside in directory /bin\b\b\b\b____ (for
+bin\b\b\b___ary programs). This directory is searched automatically
+by the command line interpreter. Some programs
+classified as commands are located elsewhere; this
+fact is indicated in the appropriate sections.
+
+System calls are entries into the UNIX supervisor.
+In assembly language, they are coded with the use
+of the opcode "sys", a synonym for the
+trap\b\b\b\b____ instruction.
+
+A small assortment
+of subroutines is available;
+they are described in section III.
+The binary form of most of them is kept in
+the system library /usr/lib/liba.a.
+
+The special files section IV discusses the characteristics of
+each system "file" which actually refers to an I/O device.
+Unlike previous editions, the names in this
+section refer to the DEC device names for the
+hardware,
+instead of the neames of
+the special files themselves.
+
+The file formats section V documents the structure of particular
+kinds of files; for example, the form of the output of the loader and
+assembler is given. Excluded are files used by only one command,
+for example the assembler's intermediate files.
+
+User-maintained programs (section VI) are not considered part
+of the UNIX system, and the principal reason for
+listing them is to indicate their existence without
+necessarily giving a complete description.
+The author should be consulted for information.
+
+The miscellaneous section (VII) gathers odds and ends.
+
+Section VIII discusses commands which are not intended
+for use by the ordinary user,
+in some cases because they disclose information
+in which he is presumably not interested,
+and in others because they perform
+privileged functions.
+
+
+Each section consists of a number of independent
+entries of a page or so each.
+The name of the entry is in the upper corners of its pages,
+its preparation date in the upper middle.
+Entries within each section are
+alphabetized.
+The page numbers of each entry start at 1.
+(The earlier hope for frequent, partial
+updates of the manual is clearly in vain, but
+in any event it is not feasible to
+maintain consecutive page numbering in a document
+like this.)
+
+All entries have a common format.
+.sp
+.in 5
+The name\b\b\b\b____ section repeats the entry name and gives
+a very short description of its purpose.
+
+The synopsis\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b________ summarizes the use of the
+program being described.
+A few conventions are used, particularly in the
+Commands section:
+
+.in 8
+Underlined words are considered literals, and
+are typed just as they appear.
+
+Square brackets ([]) around an argument
+indicate that the argument is optional.
+When an argument is given as "name", it always
+refers to a file name.
+
+Ellipses "..." are used to show that the previous argument-prototype
+may be repeated.
+
+A final convention is used by the commands themselves.
+An argument beginning with a minus sign "-"
+is often taken to mean some sort of flag argument
+even if it appears in a position where a file name
+could appear. Therefore, it is unwise to have files
+whose names begin with "-".
+
+.in 5
+The description\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b___________ section discusses in detail the subject at hand.
+
+The files\b\b\b\b\b_____ section gives the names of files which are
+built into the program.
+
+A see\b\b\b___ also\b\b\b\b____ section gives pointers to related information.
+
+A diagnostics\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b\b___________
+section discusses
+the diagnostics that may be produced.
+This section tends to be as terse
+as the diagnostics themselves.
+
+The bugs\b\b\b\b____ section gives
+known bugs and sometimes deficiencies.
+Occasionally also the suggested fix is
+described.
+
+.in 0
+Previous edition of this manual had
+an owner\b\b\b\b\b_____ section, which has been dropped from this
+edition because the "owners" of many routines became
+fairly hard to pin down.
+The major contributors to UNIX,
+(cast in order of appearance)
+together with their login names and most notable contributions,
+are
+
+ ken K. Thompson (UNIX, many commands)
+ dmr D. M. Ritchie (many commands, as, ld, C)
+ jfo J. F. Ossanna (roff, nroff)
+ doug M. D. McIlroy (tmg, m6)
+ rhm R. Morris (dc, much of library)
+ lem L. E. McMahon (cref)
+ llc L. L. Cherry (form, fed, salloc)
+ csr C. S. Roberts (tss)
+ enp E. N. Pinson (proof)
+
+At the beginning of this document is a table of contents,
+organized by section and alphabetically within each section.
+There is also a permuted index derived from the table of contents.
+Within each index entry, the title
+of the writeup to which
+it refers is followed by the appropriate section number in parentheses.
+This fact is important because there is considerable
+name duplication among the sections,
+arising principally from commands which
+exist only to exercise a particular system call.
+
+
+This manual was prepared using the UNIX text
+editor ed\b\b__ and the formatting program roff\b\b\b\b____.
+
+The assistance of R. Morris is gratefully acknowledged.
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